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THE 

DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE IN THE 

LIGHT OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 



l&urattottal Jfigrlinloga iHonngrapIiB 

iE&itrb by (Sug ManttOBt B31]t;]]]U 
No. 16 



The 

Doctrine of Formal Discipline in the 

Light of Experimental Investigation 

[i.'^ BY 

Nellie Pi'Hewins, Ph.D., Pd.D. 

New York University 
Instructor in Biology, Newton High School, New York City 




BALTIMORE: 

WARWICK & YORK, Inc. 
1916 






v^\x 



Copyright. 1916, by 
Wabwick & York, Inc. 




NOV -8 i9!5 
©CIA44553'; 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 

The chief problems of educational psychology evi- 
dently include the nature of mental endowment, or 
the original nature of man, the nature of the learning 
process and the nature of training. The last-named 
issue has occasioned within the last decade a quite 
unusual amount of debate, for, on the one hand, its 
outcome is of the first importance for educational 
theory, while, on the other hand, its solution, on ac- 
count of the complexity of the questions involved, is 
far from being obvious or simple. Not long ago, as a 
result of the earlier experimental studies, it was felt 
by many that transfer of training was present either 
not at all or at least in such slight amounts as to be 
negligible. More recently, the pendulum has certainly 
swung in the other direction. Experimentation has 
been directed less toward searching for the existence 
of transfer than to searching for the kind of transfer 
present and the conditions under which it appeared. 
One factor in this shift of attack upon the problem as 
a whole has been the conviction that experimentation 
conducted upon children still in their formative years 
and under the more natural conditions of their every- 
day life might very well reveal the presence of formal 
training that could not be demonstrated with adults 
in the psychological laboratory. 

The work presented by Dr. Hewins in the present 
monograph will be found closely similar in general 
conception to that presented by Dr. Rugg in his recent 
monograph. In conjunction with the laboratory 
testing of children reported in our series by Dr. Wang, 



VI THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

these monographs are bound to exert a considerable 
influence upon current thinking as to the nature and 
extent of the transfer of training. 

Dr. Hewins' summary of previous work upon the 
problem will prove most helpful to students. Her 
own experiments have the particular merit of being 
readily repeated by classroom teachers in the same 
field. 

G. M. W. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 1 

Part I. Historical 

I. Aims of Investigators 4 

Psychological 4 

1. Experiments on the effect of training of one kind 

of sensitiveness on other kinds of sensitive- 
ness 4 

2. Experiments on the accm-acy of voluntary ef- 

fort and the effect of special training on the 
general rapidity and accuracy of motor ad- 
justments 5 

3. Experiments on the effect of special training on 

the general rapidity and accuracy of memor- 
izing 5 

4. Experiments on cross-education or the transfer- 

ence of practice from one member to a sym- 
metrical one 6 

Pedagogical 7 

II. Means, Methods, Results and Conclusions of Experi- 
mental Investigations 9 

Psychological Experiments 10 

1. Effect of training of one kind of sensitiveness 

on other kinds 10 

2. Experiments on the accuracy of volimtary effort 

and the effect of special training on the gen- 
eral rapidity and accuracy of motor adjust- 
ments 15 

3. Experiments on the effect of special training on 

the general rapidity and accuracy of memor- 
izing 25 

4. Data derived from experimentation in regard 

to the effect of the training of one organ upon 
the bilaterally symmetrical one, or closely 
related member 28 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS 

Pedagogical Experiments 31 

1. Mathematics 31 

2. Spelling 36 

3. English Grammar 36 

4. Mental Traits 37 

A. Memory 37 

B. Habits 42 

C. Concentration of attention 42 

D. Observation 43 

E. Quickness, accm-acy, attention, etc 43 

F. Ideas of Method 44 

G. Ideals 44 

III. Summary of the Historical Review 46 

Pakt II. Original Investigation 

I. Introduction 49 

II. Subjects 50 

III. Time Schedule of Tests 50 

IV. Practice Series 51 

V. Method of Conducting the Tests 52 

VI. Details of the Tests 53 

VII. Marking the Tests and Use of the Scores 71 

VIII. Tables and summaries 74 

CONCLTJSIONS Ill 

Comparison of Results with Those of Pedagogical Experi- 
ments 113 

Bibliography 115 

Appendix 119 



The Doctrine of Formal Discipline in the Light 
of Experimental Investigation 



INTRODUCTION 

It would seem to be entirely superfluous to explain 
what is meant by the doctrine of formal discipline, 
for since the epoch-making experiments of James 
(25, 54)1 a little more than a decade ago, this theory 
has occupied the center of the controversial stage of 
pedagogical problems. Since the Middle Ages, when 
the doctrine flourished in justification of the classical 
learning, or even from earlier times as claimed by 
Locke (31) in his statement "Formal disciphne has 
been invoked from Plato's time to the present as a 
defense of the courses in mathematics," the theory of 
formal discipline has been held as almost axiomatic, 
but with the abandonment of the old ''faculty" psy- 
chology, it has lost its main prop and its subsequent 
subjection to experimental investigation has left the 
theory on a somewhat unstable foundation. We can- 
not estabhsh the truth or the falsity of the doctrine 
on a 'priori grounds in this scientific age, but must 
subject it to many careful, scientifically conducted 
and controlled experiments covering a wide range of 
school subjects and performed with school children of 
various ages, grades, mental attainments, and environ- 
ments; for its reliability cannot be based longer upon 

1 Reference numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the 
end of the book. 



Z THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

psychological experiments, pure and simple, per- 
formed upon a few adults in college laboratories with 
complex apparatus. 

The experimental investigations until within the 
last few years have been mainly psychological, con- 
ducted by professors of colleges with college or uni- 
versity students or instructors as subjects, neces- 
sarily few in number; and only recently have tests 
been made with school children. Of these, a small 
number have been tried in this country, and they have 
been for the most part confined to the elementary 
schools. Judd (28) describes formal discipline as the 
"great problem of High-School education." The sub- 
jects of the elementary school are studied mainly for 
their content value and their practical relationship to 
the future normal life of the child fitted for the de- 
mands of his environment. Grammar may be a pos- 
sible exception, although this should be taught from 
the standpoint of improving the child's English, 
rather than as a mental discipline. In the high school, 
however, nearly every study claims as one of the best 
reasons for its introduction into, or continuance in, the 
course of study, some definite mental training which 
will carry over into other walks of life, however re- 
motely related. Mathematics is said to train the reason- 
ing powers, science the observational abilities, liter- 
ature and history the imagination, etc. Thus we can 
agree with Judd (28) that the ''final answer of the 
question will relate to the work of the High School." 
We must not argue or speculate about the matter, 
but we must investigate these claims for the various 
studies and support them by definite tests or refute 
them by similar carefully conducted and controlled 
experiments. Many experiments will be required 



INTEODUCTION 6 

upon all the subjects and under varying conditions, 
before we can generalize scientifically as to the validity 
of the doctrine. But with the question of the value 
of the disciplinary view of the studies in the balance, 
it would be well to look to the content side until such 
time as the theory has been definitely proved or dis- 
proved. Burt's (10) advice is to ''emphasize and 
extend the elements shared by the curriculum and the 
conditions of school in common with the conditions 
and requirements of life." 

The experiments performed and described by the 
author have been undertaken with the object of con- 
tributing a mite to the countless ones necessary to 
determine the validity or falsity of the disciplinary 
conception^ especially as applied to high-school sub- 
jects. 



PART I. HISTORICAL. 

I. Aims of Investigators. 

Reviewing the experimental researches on this 
topic, we find that while the aims of the investigators 
have been manifold, they may be grouped under sev- 
eral main divisions. First, we may classify them as 
primarily psychological or primarily pedagogical. 

Psychological. 

1. Experirnents on the effect of training of one kind 
of sensitiveness on other kinds of sensitiveness. These 
include those of Bennett (6) to test the effect on dis- 
crimination of length by the eye as a result of practice 
in discriminating length by arm^mov ements; those of 
Wallin (58, 60) to attempt to control the reversions 
in a number of reversible perspective outlines; those 
of Seashore and Jenner (42) on the training of the 
voice by the aid of the eye in singing; those of Coover 
and Angell (12) to test the general practice effect of 
special exercise, including experiments on the transfer 
of practice effects in sound to light discriminations, 
and the transference of practice in sorting cards to 
''typewriter reactions"; those of Thorndike and 
Woodworth (53) on the effects of practice in estimating 
length of lines on estimating length of lines, areas, 
and weights; on the effects of practice in picking out 
and marking words of some one special sort on the 
observation of words containing certain combinations 
of letters and picking out and marking certain letters; 
and those of Urbantshitsch (56) on the effects of 



AIMS OF INVESTIGATORS 5 

practice with sound stimuli on tactual, gustatory, 
olfactory, and visual stimuli. 

2. Experiments on the accuracy of voluntary effort 
and the effect of special training on the general rapidity 
and accuracy of motor adjustments. These experi- 
ments include those of Davis (14) to test the accuracy 
of voluntary effort in lunging at a target, those of 
Jastrow (27) to test quickness of response to touch 
and visual stimuli; those of Gilbert and Fracker 
(reviewed by Thorndike, 54) to test quickness in 
moving the finger at a given signal; those of Swift 
(52) to test the acquisition of skill in the complex 
muscular act of keeping three balls in the air, and in 
typewriting; those of Judd (2) to test the influence of 
training in the judgment of direction of lines, and the 
transfer of practice in the Mijiler-Lyer illusion; those 
of Foster (18) to test the effect of practice upon visual- 
izing and upon the reproduction of visual impressions; 
those of Whipple (62) to test the effect of practice 
upon the range of visual attention and visual appre- 
hension; those of Bergstrom (7) on sorting cards, 
wherein was tested the interference of habits formed 
with ability to perform opposite acts; those of Bair 
(21, 54) to test effects of special training on general 
power to meet new situations; those of Munsterberg 
(21, 35) to test whether a habit associated with a 
given sensory stimulus can continue automatically, 
while some effect of a previous and different habit 
associated with the same stimulus remains; those of 
Ruger (41) to test the transfer of specific motor habits. 
3. Experiments on the effect of special training on 
the general rapidity and accuracy of memorizing. Here 
are included those of James (21, 25, 54) to test improve- 
ment in memory after special training in memorizing 



b THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

poetry; those of Ebert and Meumann (2, 21) to test 
the effect of practice in memorizing meaningless 
syllables on the power of immediate recall and reten- 
tion of numbers, letters, monosyllabic nouns, words of 
Italian prose and poetry, visual signs, etc.; those of 
Fracker (19, 21) to test the effect of practice in memor- 
izing four tones on memorizing poetry, four shades 
of gray, nine geometrical figures, nine numbers, extent 
of arm movements, etc.; those of Jansen (26) to test 
similar points to those of Prof. Meumann; those of 
Bennett (6) to test the effect of practice in memorizing 
poetry on memorizing rows of figures and names of 
places; those of Thorndike and Woodworth (21, 53) to 
test the influence of special training in memorizing on 
the general ability to memorize. 

4. Experiments on cross-education or the transference 
of practice from one member to a symmetrical one. These 
comprise those of Davis (14, 54) to test transference 
of motor ability from the practised right hand to the 
unpractised left in lunging at a target; those of Scrip- 
ture (44) to test transference of ability from the right 
hand practised on a mercury dynamometer to the 
unpractised left hand; those of Scripture, Smith, and 
Brown (45, 54) to show transfer from the right hand, 
practised on inserting a needle into a hole without 
touching the sides, to the unpractised left hand; those 
of Raif (37, 44), who performed similar experiments 
in piano playing; those of Wallin (58, 60) to attempt 
to control the reversions in a number of reversible 
perspective outlines, in which he found that practice 
with one eye afforded practice for the other unused 
eye; those of Volkmann (21, 54), reviewed by Hender- 
son and Thorndike, showing the effect of practice in 
training the sensitiveness of the skin of the left arm, 



AIMS OF INVESTIGATORS 7 

upon the right arm; those of Swift (52) to test the 
acquisition of skill in the complex muscular act of 
tossing three balls, in which he found that practice 
transferred from the right to the left hand; those of 
Starch (50), who found in the experiment of tracing 
the outline of a six-pointed star as seen in a mirror 
that improvement was transferred from the left to 
the right hand; those of Davis (14, 54) to show the 
transfer of tapping ability with the toe of one foot 
to the unpractised toe and to show the increase in 
girth of the right arm and the left arm through lifting 
a weight with the right arm; and those of Woodworth 
(54) showing a transfer of practice in hitting a dot 
with the right hand to the unpractised left. 

Pedagogical. 

In the pedagogical field, the aims of the experi- 
mental investigations have been more limited. The 
experiments with school children have been confined 
to few school subjects and few mental abilities. Miss 
Aiken's (1) pioneer experiments, described in 1896, 
and her astounding results argue well for the validity 
of the doctrine of formal discipline. Recently, Dal- 
lenbach (13) has made Aiken's experiments, together 
with the laboratory studies of Whipple (62) and of 
Foster (18) on visualization, the basis of an exhaustive 
scientific test on elementary school-children. His 
results tend to support those of Miss Aiken and lead 
to the conclusion that experiments with adults are not 
reliable tests of what occurs with school-children. 

Pedagogical experiments relating to this topic may 
be grouped under those concerned with college stu- 
dents and those concerned with school children. The 
school subjects utilized for investigatory purposes 



8 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

have been arithmetic, spelHng, and grammar and the 
mental abiUties, memory, habits, and ideals. Arith- 
metical experiments with college students include 
those of Starch (49) to test the transfer of training in 
arithmetical operations; those of Lewis (30) and Collins 
(11) to ascertain the relation between mathematics 
and general reasoning; and those of Rietz and Shade 
(38) to discover the correlation of efficiency in mathe- 
matics and in other studies, while with elementary or 
high-school pupils Winch (67, 68) has experimented 
to discover if improvement in numerical accuracy 
transfers, Lewis (30) has found interesting data in 
regard to the relation between mathematical and 
practical reasoning, and Stone (51) has tested the 
relation between distinctive procedures in arithmetic 
work and the resulting abilities. Wallin (59) has 
tested elementary pupils to ascertain if spelling ef- 
ficiency acquired in column drill transfers to dictated 
compositions, and Briggs (9) has investigated the 
disciplinary effects of formal English grammar. 

With reference to mental abilities, memory has re- 
ceived most attention, although reason has been given 
some attention, as in the experiments of Lewis and 
Collins, cited above. College students have been 
used by Sleight for experimentation in regard to the 
transfer of memory, while elementary pupils have 
been made subjects of investigation by Winch to test 
immediate memory, both visual and auditory, and to 
test the transfer of improvement in memory; and by 
Sleight (46, 47) to ascertain if memory training is 
general or specific. 

The effect of special habits on the general conduct 
or habits of school children has been tested by Squire 
(3) and by Ruediger (40). Squire's aim was to test 
the transfer of neatness and accuracy in arithmetic 



AIMS OF INVESTIGATORS 9 

papers to other school subjects, while that of Ruediger 
was to test the influence of ideals of neatness in im- 
proving the written work of the 7th-grade school 
children. Judd (2) in his target experiment has demon- 
strated the value of a recognized method. 

There is urgent need for investigation in regard to 
other school subjects and other mental powers if the 
problem is to be solved satisfactorily, and it is to be 
hoped that the experiments may be undertaken by the 
classroom teacher, drilled in the methods of experi- 
mental pedagogy, for only then will there be sufficient 
trained investigators and optimal conditions for work 
that may produce unassailable conclusions. 

11. Means, Methods, Results and Conclusions 
OF Experimental Investigations. 

The means employed by the various investigators 
have been almost as numerous as their aims. Under 
this heading are included apparatus and materials 
used and the subjects of the investigation. In many 
cases, especially in the psychological experiments, 
the apparatus has been quite complicated, while the 
subjects have been generally few in number and usually 
those possessing psychologically trained minds. The 
same is true of several of the pedagogical experiments, 
while, as has been previously stated, few school chil- 
dren, especially in this country, have been used as 
reagents. 

As widely different as are the aims and materials 
of the many investigators of the doctrine of formal 
discipline, just as widely divergent are the methods 
pursued. 

The results and conclusions obtained will warrant 
a separation of the investigators into two groups — 
those in favor of the doctrine and those opposed. 



10 THE DOCTRINE OF FOEMAL DISCIPLINE 

Psychological Experiments. 

1. Effect of training of one kind of sensitiveness on 
other kinds. The apparatus used by Bennett (6) in 
discrimination of length by the eye as a result of prac- 
tice in discriminating length by the knowledge gained 
from arm-movements, consisted of 2 parallel, hori- 
zontal, steel rods, 2 feet long and 13^2 inches apart. 
On the lower rod were two spools fixed immovably 
25 cm. apart, and on the upper rod were two spools 
which were freely movable. In the training the two 
subjects were required to move the two movable 
spools on the upper rod to equate their distance to 
that of the immovable spools on the lower rod, through 
the sensation derived by arm-movement. The final 
tests were visual estimates of length. The result of the 
experiment was negative; one subject showed improve- 
ment, but the other an equal degree of lack of im- 
provement. 

In the experiments of Wallin (58) to attempt to 
control the reversions in a number of reversible per- 
spective outlines, the apparatus consisted of drawings 
of a parallelopiped, a book, a table, and a pyramid. 
Two subjects practiced in attempting to envisage 
uniformly the infrequent or non-predominant per- 
spective, in all cases monocularly. Wallin found that 
perspectivity was subject to a high degree of practice 
control. In 9,246 trials, the per cent, of successful 
control in three groups amounted to 40, 62, and 82. 
There was an average gain of 42 per cent, between the 
first and last 20 days of the series. He also found 
that the practice effects were transferred to the un- 
practised eye. ''In a given series of experiments in 
which the figures were reversed in the direct and 
indirect visual fields, it appeared that the reversions 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 11 

occurred about 23^ times faster when the figures were 
directly regarded instead of being seen by the peri- 
pheral retina. But after practice with certain figures, 
it sometimes happened that the figures reversed most 
readily when a point outside the figures was fixated." 
This furnishes an instance of the transference to the 
peripheral retina of fixation motives attaching to the 
fovea. Here an acquired foveal disposition spread to 
the adjacent retinal elements, or the foveal tendency 
was transmuted into a ''generalized retinal habit." 

Seashore and Jenner's (42) experiments on the 
training of the voice by the aid of the eye in singing, 
made use of the voice tonoscope. Each of the six 
observers sang before the speaking tube. The tests 
were divided into: (1) accuracy in striking a required 
pitch, (2) the least producible change in pitch (minimal 
change). The preliminary practice was given with 
six observers. Each period of practice consisted of 
160 trials, which took about 45 minutes. Tests were 
given for 12 days; the first 5 days "without aid," 
the singer depended entirely on the ear; and the next 
5 days with aid, that is, the record was read from the 
tonoscope in each trial ; the eleventh day the record was 
taken without aid again; and the record of the twelfth 
day was taken with the aid. Their conclusions per- 
tinent to the topic in hand are: (1) "The aid enhances 
the ability to strike a tone which has been heard." 
There was 42 per cent, superiority of the aided series 
over the unaided. (2) "The aid enhances the ability 
to sing an interval." The aided series was superior 
to the unaided 50 per cent, in singing a major third, 
50 per cent, in singing a fifth, and 60 per cent, in sing- 
ing an octave. (3) The voluntary control of the 
pitch of the voice is improved 26 per cent, by the aid. 



12 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

(4) ''There is probably some transfer of gain from the 
aided training to the following unaided singing." 

(5) "There is no evidence of the transfer of gain in 
the accuracy of the memory image." (6) "The gain 
in the discriminative control of the pitch of the voice 
is fully transferred. (7) "Improvements in the ability 
to strike a tone, or an interval, and the ability to 
produce a minimal change are very much more pro- 
nounced and more rapid in the aided than in the 
unaided series." These seven points show that "by 
the use of the tonoscope we facilitate in a decided 
manner the ability to sing in true pitch and the im- 
provement is almost immediate." (8) It seems prob- 
able "that a higher degree of accuracy of pitch in 
singing may be attained by aiding the ear in the train- 
ing than would be possible to attain without such 
aid." 

Coover's and Angell's (12) investigations to test 
the general practice effect of special exercise included 
experiments on the transfer of practice effects in 
sound to light discriminations and the transfer of 
practice in card-sorting to "typewriter reactions." 
In the former experiment, four reagents were trained 
by means of a sound pendulum in discrimination of 
intensities of sound for 17 days during a period of 57 
days, and each reagent made 40 judgments in each 
day's training. Before and after training, the reagents 
were tested in the discrimination of shades of gray. 
Each test consisted of three series, of 35 judgments 
each, delivered on three separate days. Control 
reagents were given the tests. It was found that 
there was an improvement in three of the trained sub- 
jects of 7, 5, and 15 per cent, respectively, but a 
failure in one of them; the control reagents showed a 



EXPEEIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 13 

loss in discriminative ability in the final tests. Coover 
and Angell concluded that the '^ improvement seems 
to consist of divesting the essential process of the un- 
essential factors," that "efficiency of sensible dis- 
crimination acquired by training with sound stimuli 
has been transferred to the efficiency of discriminating 
brightness stimuli and that the factors in the transfer 
are due in great part to habituation and to a more 
economic adaptation of attention, i. e., are general 
rather than specific in character." In their second 
experiment just referred to, in which reaction with 
discrimination (choice) was tested, four reagents 
were trained through four days in card-sorting, during 
which 4000 cards were distributed by each reagent. 
They were tested for five days on 'typewriter reac- 
tions" — about 3000 reactions in each case; and after 
training in card-sorting, an after test was given for 
three days which included about 1800 reactions. 
The results warranted the conclusion that ''training 
in card-sorting is the cause of the increased ease and 
facility experienced by the regular reagents in the 
second trial in 'typewriter reactions'"; but this im- 
provement is not considered due to "identical ele- 
ments." "The general condition that is common to 
both is the habit of stripping the essential process of 
unnecessary and complicating accessories." The cause 
of transference of facility is the formation of a habit 
of reacting directly to a stimulus, which results in an 
equitable distribution of attention and the conse- 
quent power of concentrating the attention. 

Thorndike and Woodworth (53) in their tests of 
improvement in mental functions used magnitudes, 
such as lines of various lengths, areas of different 
sizes, and weights of several magnitudes; the practice 



14 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

work was on estimating magnitudes of the same gen- 
eral sort. They also tested the ''influence of training 
in observing words containing certain combinations of 
letters or some other characteristic, on the general 
ability to observe words." The subject practised 
picking out and marking words of some one special 
sort until a high degree of proficiency was attained. 
From four to six subjects were used in the various 
experiments, all of which tested the "influence of 
improvement in a function on other functions closely 
allied to it." 

Their conclusions were as follows: "It is misleading 
to speak of sense discrimination, attention, memory, 
observation, accuracy, quickness, etc., as multitudinous 
separate individual functions are referred to by any 
one of these words." "There is no reason to suppose 
that any general change occurs corresponding to the 
words 'improvement of the attention,' or 'of the power 
of observation,' or 'of accuracy.'" "Improvement in 
any single mental function rarely brings about equal 
improvement in any other function, no matter how 
similar, for the working of every mental function- 
group is conditioned by the nature of the data in 
each particular case." "The general consideration of 
the cases of retention or of loss of practice effect seems 
to make it likely that spread of practice occurs only 
where identical elements are concerned in the influ- 
encing and influenced functions." 

Urbantschitsch (56) studied pathological cases with 
diseases of the eye and ear and found that stimulation 
also affects parts seemingly not immediately concerned. 
An hour's operation on the right eye showed on the 
left a relative enhancement of the capacity to see. In 
many patients with chronic catarrh of the middle 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 15 

ear, the observer was surprised to find that an import- 
ant pathological influence was transferred from the 
ear to vision. In a later investigation he demon- 
strated that the sensitivity for tactual, gustatory, 
olfactory, and visual stimulation can be increased by 
practice with auditory stimulation. 

To summarize the conclusions of the investigators 
upon the topic of the effect on other kinds of sensi- 
tivity of training one kind of sensitivity, we find that 
Wallin, Seashore and Jenner, Coover and Angell, and 
Urbantschitsch subscribe to the doctrine of transfer, 
but Thorndike and Woodworth are opposed. Ben- 
nett's tests must be disregarded, as the two reagents 
obtained results diametrically opposed. The results of 
Wallin and Bennett could be set aside on the ground 
of having too few subjects, unless their results were 
subsequently verified by other observers. In all of 
the tests, the subjects were too few in number, but the 
results of Seashore and Jenner, of Coover and Angell, 
and of Urbantschitsch, seem to place the preponder- 
ance of scientific conclusion on the affirmative side. 

2. Experiments on the accuracy of voluntary effort 
and the effect of special training on the general rapidity 
and accuracy of motor adjustments. Here, many 
diverse methods have been used, with resultant dis- 
similarity of results and inferences. 

Davis (14) used a target and a fencer's foil, and 
worked with six subjects. He had 10 thrusts made 
with the right hand and recorded on a paper target. 
After five minutes, the record of 10 thrusts with the 
left hand was made on another paper target. The 
initial tests were repeated after 10 days' practice of 
10 thrusts daily with the right hand. It was found 
that the subjects could be educated in accuracy and 



16 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

co-ordination of voluntary movement. The left hand 
improved from 57.2 per cent, to 36.5 per cent, nearer 
the center of the target ; while the right hand improved 
from 50.5 per cent, to 24.3 per cent. Increase in ac- 
curacy is due to practice in lunging. His experiments 
did not test the transfer of this special training to other 
motor adjustments, but only to the bilaterally sym- 
metrical organ. 

Jastrow (27), in testing quickness of response to 
tactile and visual stimuli, experimented with two 
*'Sleight-of-Hand Experts," Kellar and Hermann, 
and with miscellaneous individuals for the control. 
The tests included measurements with the aesthesi- 
ometer, judgments of weights of different magnitudes, 
and tests of sensitiveness to texture, for which coils of 
different sized wire were utilized. The results showed 
that Hermann's and Kellar's tactual and muscular per- 
ception were below normal. With the Weber compass, 
Hermann could distinguish the points at 3.5 mm. 
distance, Kellar at 2.5 mm., and the average for mis- 
cellaneous individuals at 2 mm. Herman was unsuc- 
cessful, Kellar successful, in arranging in correct order 
five weights, each of which weighed y^ more than 
the previous weight. In a general series of tests, 
92 per cent, of those tested arranged the series cor- 
rectly. In the tests with the different sized wires, 
"both Mr. Hermann and Mr. Kellar succeeded in ar- 
ranging both series correctly, but this was also done 
by nine out of ten persons who were tested in the 
same way." Quite a number of tests of the quickness 
of movement and of mental processes, and of visual 
perception, were made. Some of the ordinary forms 
of reaction experiments were also tried. Tests to find 
out the comprehensiveness of perception were likewise 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 17 

given. Selecting those tests in which the records of 
Hermann and of Kellar differ markedly from the 
normal, Jastrow finds: "In the quickness of response 
to a touch and a visual stimulus both the special sub- 
jects, and Mr. Kellar as well in response to an audi- 
tory stimulus, excelled to a considerable extent the 
average individual." But in the ''most complicated 
reaction they both fall considerably below the normal." 
There are decided indications of unusual quickness 
for both; but no very decided excellence appears in 
the scope and accuracy of visual perception. "In 
tests involving mainly tactual and muscular percep- 
tion, the indication is rather that they are below than 
above the normal." Thus Jastrow concludes that 
"the positive results of the investigation are thus 
small, but as far as they go they are consistent with 
the forms of dexterity that are utilized in sleight-of- 
hand performances." "They also indicate that it 
may well be that special skill in one very specialized 
form of training may be only slightly influential upon 
other forms of capacity." 

In Gilbert's and Fracker's (54) experiments, re- 
viewed by Thorndike, two subjects were tested for 
their quickness in moving the finger, (1) when they 
heard a certain sound, (2) when they felt a certain 
electric shock, (3) when they felt a certain blow, and 
(4) when they saw a blue surface. They were also 
tested for their quickness in moving the finger at these 
same stimuli when either the given sound or one less 
loud, either the given shock or one less intense, either 
the given blow or one less hard, and either a blue or 
a red might appear. They were trained for a number 
of days in quickness in reacting to the sound, (a) 
when only it was given, (b) when either it or the weaker 



18 THE DOCTEINE OP FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

sound might be given. Then they were tested as 
before. It was found that there was an improvement 
in all cases, except one case with one observer. One 
observer was trained only in (a) quickness in reacting 
to sound. He improved markedly in the correspond- 
ing tests, but not so much as the others in the second 
set of tests. Thorndike explains this improvement on 
the ground of "identical elements." Elements com- 
mon to all these tests are concentrated attention, 
alertness, effort, co-ordination of sensory and motor 
areas, and rapidity of discrimination. 
-' Swift's (52) experiments on the testing of the 
acquisition of skill in keeping two balls going with 
one hand, were made with solid rubber balls. There 
were six subjects — five university students and one 
professor. Ten series were given; each of which con- 
sisted in throwing until failure to catch one or both 
balls. Practice was with the right hand, but there 
was a preliminary test with the left. He discovered 
that progress was at first slow and then more rapid. 
There was great irregularity of advance. Progress 
was by ''jumps." A ''warming up" is necessary but 
"steady and calm intensity makes for progress." He 
also found transference of practice effects from the 
right hand to the left. Swift, himself, performed an 
experiment which combined physical and mental 
tests, in the acquisition of skill in typewriting. He 
wrote one hour each day from copy. Here, he also 
found that the rise of the practice curve is rapid, but 
that there is irregularity from day to day. In both 
of Swift's experiments, there is no test of the transfer 
to other abilities of special ability gained by practice. 
It was discovered that training of the right hand was 
effective upon the left, but he does not believe that 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 19 

this gives any support to the doctrine of ''formal 
education." "There is no evidence to show that 
training has general value." 

Judd's (2) method in testing the influence of train- 
ing in the judgment of direction of lines, was to place 
his one subject with his right hand hidden from his 
own view by a screen. On the left of the screen, nine 
different lines were shown in succession and the ob- 
server was required to place a pencil held in the unseen 
right hand in the direction indicated by the several 
lines seen by him. The subject was trained to the 
more accurate localization of one line, No. 5. After 
improvement, the original conditions were restored 
and the tests again made. Every line was affected in 
the final test. ''This means that there had been a 
transfer of effects under the conditions of the training 
described." A new practice series was begun with 
Line No. 2, and the amount of practice given was 
much greater in quantity and more radical in type, 
but the subject remained relatively unaffected. Judd's 
conclusions are that "joint improvement is only one 
of the possible forms of transfer; reciprocal inter- 
ference is just as significant a type of relation and 
just as certainly a type of transfer as is joint improve- 
ment," and "the closing up of the possibilities of future 
practice is much more important a consequence of 
any practice series than the direct transfer of effects 
to other functions." In the experiments on the 
transfer of practice in the Miiller-Lyer illusion, two 
observers were tested in the comparison of two com- 
plex geometrical figures. Judd found that both 
learned to apprehend the lines correctly in about the 
same number of comparisons. When the figures 
were reversed and a second series of tests begun, the 



20 THE DOCTKINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

observer who knew about the effect of practice ad- 
justed himself to the new demands and rapidly over- 
came the illusion. The other showed greater error 
and no disposition to improve. Judd concluded that 
"the practice gained in the first series was transferred 
in both cases; in one case, it worked improvement; in 
the other, it increased the illusion, and rendered the 
observer incapable of rapid readjustment." 

In Foster's (18) experiments on the effect of prac- 
tice upon visualizing and upon the reproduction of 
visual impressions, real objects, pictures, and non- 
sense-drawings were exposed to three observers for 
10-60 seconds. They were required to reproduce by 
drawing and description. He found ability to repro- 
duce increased with practice, it was rapid at first and 
slow later. 

Whipple (62), in testing the effect of practice upon 
the range of visual attention used a disc-tachistoscope 
and 5-, 6-, and 7-place nonsense combinations of letters. 
The subjects were six college students, each of whom 
observed 124-250 exposures of .08 second's duration. 
His results show that the average number of letters 
that can be grasped in a single exposure lies between 
4 and 5 (4.82). ''Attention and effortful observa- 
tion through a series of from one to two hundred or 
more exposures has a curiously small effect upon the 
range of attention." ''Adult observers very quickly 
reach a physiological limit of visual observation when 
the exposure is so restricted as to prohibit eye-move- 
ments and roving of attention." In studying the 
range of visual apprehension, the form of material to 
be used — dots, pictures, nonsense-syllables, drawings, 
or stanzas of poetry — was stated and the exposure 
with the tachistoscope for 3 seconds was made when 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 21 

the observers were thoroughly prepared by fixation 
and attention to receive it. Again, groups of ten 
objects upon a table were exposed for 6 seconds. 
Three observers performed these experiments. ''The 
most striking quantitative results of these tests is the 
very small increase for certain kinds of material in 
the number of items observed with the exposures of 3 
and 6 seconds as compared with the exposure of .08 
seconds (range of attention tests)." "With an ex- 
posure of 6 seconds, the average number of objects 
named was 6.05, while with an exposure only tV as 
long, between 4 and 5 objects could be named." The 
tables show facts that "negative the idea of general 
ability in apprehension or even of general ability in 
visual apprehension: we may state only that a given 
individual excels in the attentive observation of pic- 
tures, of drawings, of words, or of certain kinds of 
objects, etc., not that he excels in all-round observa- 
tion." The table also "seems to show the improb- 
ability of a series of classroom exercises training and 
developing general capacity to attend." 

Bergstrom (7), in his study of the relation of the 
interference effect to the practice effect of an associ- 
ation, sorted 80 cards into 10 different piles, each 
containing 8 cards with the same picture. In sorting 
the same pack a second time, a given card could be 
placed in the same position as the first time or in one 
of nine other positions. If put in the same, it is a 
simple practice effect, and if in a different one it is an 
interference effect. The cards were sorted with the 
greatest possible speed. He found that the "inter- 
ference effect of an association bears a constant rela- 
tion to the practice effect and is in fact equivalent to 
it." The variations are due to memory. 



22 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

Bair's (54) method in his studies of the influence of 
special training on general power to meet new situa- 
tions was to label 6 keys of a typewriter with 6 sym- 
bols (letters or figures). Fifty-five of these letters or 
figures (in chance order) were now shown one by one, 
and the subject on seeing one taps the corresponding 
key. Record was kept of the time taken to tap out 
the series. Six different symbols were then used in a 
new series and the subjects' time-record taken as 
before. In a similar manner, twenty different sets of 
symbols were used. There were four subjects. A 
steady improvement was found in the time taken to 
tap out a series. In another experiment, he took daily 
records for twenty days of the time required to repeat 
the alphabet from memory, repeating it forwards 
and backwards and inserting the letter 7i between 
each letter in two other repetitions. The test exer- 
cises consisted of repeating the alphabet forwards and 
backwards and inserting x and r. He again found 
improvement in the tested series. 

Miinsterberg (35) studied the interesting theo- 
retical problem whether a habit associated with a 
given sensory stimulus can continue automatically, 
while some effect of a previous and different habit 
associated with the same stimulus remains. The 
experiments were made with his inkstand, his watch, 
and the doors of his laboratory. For instance he exer- 
cised the habit of taking his watch out of his pocket 
on the left side until it became automatic. Then he 
practised taking it out on the right side until the new 
habit was automatic. He then returned to the old 
habit and found that it took less time to relearn this 
than it did to learn the second. He concluded that 
some effect of the first habit remained, although the 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 23 

second had become automatic. When this process 
was repeated several times, the time required for re- 
learning each of the two habits decreased, following 
the laws of the practice curve. He maintains that 
apparently contradictory habits do not destroy each 
other; at fii'st, it is hard to create the new habit, but 
once formed, it is easy to shift back and forth from 
one to the other. 

Ruger (41) in testing the transfer of specific motor 
habits in his study of the Psychology of Efficiency, 
had his subjects from the psychological laboratory, 
use ''animal" and ''human" methods in taking 
apart or putting together various puzzles. The pre- 
liminary and final tests consisted in testing a subject 
with a puzzle thrown in chance positions. The train- 
ing consisted in handling four special but important 
positions. The training of another subject consisted 
entirely of chance positions in a series about half the 
length of the first subject's series. The second tests 
of the first subject showed no improvement over the 
initial results and were inferior to those of the second 
subject. "This failure to profit by the highly special- 
ized training seems to have been due to the lack of a 
generalized rule of procedure." Ruger therefore con- 
cluded that "in general, the value of specific habits 
under a change of conditions depended directly on 
the presence of a general idea which would serve for 
their control." In regard to concrete imagery he 
found that "the value of the image as well as of the 
motor habit depended on the precision of the analysis." 
As regards attitude and attention, he concluded that 
"no evidence was secured in favor of an automatic 
change in level of attention but there were indications 
of its indirect control by means of ideals of what 



24 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

constituted an efficient state of attention." Among 
the most important of the ideals of method were the 
''idea of efficiency as a goal to be reached, ideals of 
scientific method, and the ideal of an optimum per- 
sonal attitude." 

Summarizing the results and conclusions of the 
eleven authors whose experiments have just been briefly 
described, it will be readily seen that not a great deal 
of evidence has been produced either for or against 
the doctrine of transference. The inference that 
improvement results from practice is supported almost 
unanimously. Some interesting evidence is deduced 
in regard to the interference of practice effects. Some 
of the experiments give data in regard to "cross- 
education." Where it was desired to secure informa- 
tion upon the subject of the transfer of practice, the 
practice was in all cases so similar to the tests that 
improvement in the practice series naturally resulted 
in improvement in the final tests. Obviously, some 
of the tests in both the preliminary and final series 
should be as dissimilar to the practice series as possible. 
This similarity warrants the explanation of transfer- 
ence as due to "identical elements" or "similarity of 
method or ideas." In some cases, the limited number 
of the subjects precludes generalization, as does also 
the securing of results diametrically opposed by inde- 
pendent investigators. Davis, Swift, Judd, Foster, 
Bair, Miinsterberg, and Ruger all found that improve- 
ment results from practice. Judd and Bergstrom 
emphasized the importance of interference as well as of 
practice effects, but in their experiments only one or 
two subjects were used, while Bah' and Miinsterberg 
claim that apparently contradictory habits do not 
destroy one another. Davis and Swift in their tests 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 25 

obtained evidence with regard to the transference of 
practice from the right to the left hand. Of those 
who entered upon the investigation of transfer, Gil- 
bert and Fracker, Judd, and Ruger admitted that 
some transfer occurred while Jastrow and Whipple 
found no evidence of its existence. In most of the 
cases the subjects were too few in number and the 
practice too similar to the tests to warrant trust- 
worthy conclusions. 

3. Experiments on the effect of special trainhig on 
the general rapidity and accuracy of memorizing were 
tried by James, Bennett, Ebert and Meumann, and 
Fracker with contradictory results on the question of 
improvement with practice and transfer. 

James (25) took account of the time necessary for 
each of five observers to learn a given amount of 
poetry. Then all practised; James learned the first 
book of Paradise Lost and the others varying amounts 
of poetry. Then the time required to learn an amount 
similar to that of the first test was taken for each of 
the observers. James found that two subjects re- 
quired more time for memorizing (one considerably 
more) after training, and the other three subjects a 
little less time; but he concluded that the tests were 
long enough to give training on the test-verse, so the 
experiment may be regarded as giving no evidence in 
favor of transfer. 

Bennett's (6) method was to have one observer 
commit to memory 5 rows of figures, 30 figures in 
each row, at the rate of one row per day. The train- 
ing was carried on for 4 weeks, 16 lines from In Memor- 
iam being memorized each day. The second ob- 
server wrote out five lines of names of places, 15 
names in each line, and committed one line each day. 



26 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

The practice was on two stanzas of the Faerie Queen 
committed daily for 5 weeks. In each case the final 
test was similar to the preliminary. Bennett found 
that the final test in memorizing numbers required 
58 per cent, of the time of the first test; while that in 
memorizing names of places required 22 per cent, of 
the time of the first test. He concluded that ''the 
possible increase in the ability to remember figures, 
could readily come from the special training in doing 
that very thing in so many subjects of the curricu- 
lum." "There is some sort of transfer from memor- 
izing one class of facts to memorizing another class 
of facts, and from memorizing prose to memorizing 
poetry. Memorizing poetry gives increased ability 
to memorize figures or names of places." 

Ebert and Meumann (2, 6, 21) in their investiga- 
tion to determine the effects of training in learning 
material of one kind upon the capacity to learn mater- 
ial of the same and different kinds, used eight subjects 
whose memories were tested for ease of learning dif- 
ferent sorts of material, such as series of letters, num- 
bers, nonsense syllables, words, Italian words, strophes 
of poetry, and selections of prose. They learned 32 
series of nonsense syllables, 12 in a row; two series of 
syllables on one day and tested the retention of two 
more. Thus, they learned four series of 12 syllables 
each on each of 16 days. At the end of this time the 
first test material was relearned and the facility of 
relearning was compared with the original. Then 
there was another period of learning; four men trained 
on 16 series of the same material as before; and four 
had 32 series. Then the final test was given. Tests 
were also made after 75-156 days of vacation. Their 
results favor a belief in a general effect from special 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 27 

training. There was a gain in the average perform- 
ance of the 8 observers for each kind of material used. 
There is a tendency for the gain to be greater in 
material that is most closely related to that on which 
practice was obtained, 59 per cent, of gain in memor- 
izing numbers, 58.2 per cent, in letters, 42 per cent, 
in nonsense syllables, while Italian words, poetry and 
prose showed gains of 30 per cent., 27 per cent., and 
29 per cent, respectively. They found that retentive- 
ness was increased as well as quickness. Tests made 
after the lapse of from 75-156 days of vacation showed 
no loss of training; in some, an increase in memory 
capacity. 

Fracker (19) in his study of the transference of 
training in memory, tested memory for poetry, the 
order of four shades of gray, the order of nine tones, 
the order of nine shades of gray, the order of four 
tones, the order of nine geometrical figures, the order 
of nine numbers, and the extent of arm-movement; 
the training series was memory for four tones. The 
subjects were eight college students and professors. 
The instruments employed were the psychergograph 
and the telephone. The four tones consisted of a 
major chord and the nine numbers were of two figures 
each. The following results were obtained: The 
gain in the tests for poetry was not very great in the 
case of any observer. The gain in the four shades of 
gray was often greater than the gain in the training; 
it was usually as great, seldom less. Four observers 
gained more in the nine tones than in the training 
series; two made the greatest gain in the nine tones of 
any of the test experiments. He judged that the 
''influence of training seems to be very strong." 
Three observers made a greater gain in the nine grays 



28 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

than in the training. One gained more in the four 
tones (major chord) than in the training series, but no 
observer made the greatest gain in this test. This 
test was most like the training series and should have 
shown the greatest gain, according to many investi- 
gators' results as to the effects of practice. Fracker 
thinks that the failure to gain was due to a different 
method of response. One made the greatest gain in 
the nine numbers' test. Fracker draws the general 
conclusion that the "central or most essential ele- 
ment in improvement is individual imagery" and the 
''improvement is more rapid if the imagery is con- 
sciously developed." He also concluded that trans- 
ference is due to ''identical elements" or a "spread 
of training"; and he is in favor of the former, or in 
favor of a "limited spread of training." 

Reviewing these investigations, it is evident that 
James reached conclusions leading him to discredit 
the belief in transference effects when applied to mem- 
ory tests, whereas Bennett, Ebert and Meumann, 
and Fracker all obtained results which appear to be 
overwhelmingly in favor of a "spread of training." 
Bennett had only two reagents, but both showed a de- 
cided amount of improvement, while the experiments 
of Ebert and Meumann and of Fracker because of 
the increased number of observers, the variety of 
material used in the tests, and the number of the 
tests, point almost conclusively to the reliability of 
the belief in the spread of practice effects, at least in 
memory work, even to material not closely related to 
that used in the practice series. 

^. Data derived from experimentation in regard to 
the effect of the training of one organ upon the bilater- 
ally symmetrical one, or closely related member, have 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 29 

been advanced in favor of the doctrine of formal 
discipline. Investigations upon this subject have 
been made by Davis, Scripture, Raif, Wallin, Volk- 
mann, Swift, Starch, and Woodworth, among others. 
The experiments of Davis (14), Swift (52), and Wallin 
(58), in which they found a decided transference from 
a practised to an unpractised member, have already 
been referred to in other connections. 

Scripture (44) had his subject take 10 records of 
the right hand with a mercury dynamometer and 10 
records of the left hand. Only the right hand was 
practised and final tests taken with the left hand. 
He found that the left hand had gained 50 per cent, 
in strength. In another experiment, he had 20 trials 
of each hand in inserting a needle into a hole without 
touching the sides. The right hand was practised 
200 times and the left hand again tested. The un- 
practised left hand increased from 50 per cent, to 76 
per cent, of successful trials. 

Raif (37) tested the average speed of the finger 
movements of each hand in 18 pupils. The exercises 
to develop rapidity began with the right hand only. 
The right hand increased from an average speed of 
116 to 176 strokes per minute after 2 months' prac- 
tice, whereas the left hand, entirely without practice, 
increased from 112 to 152. 

Volkmann (6, 14, 21, 54), in his experiments on the 
influence of practice on the power of perceiving small 
distances, tested the sensitiveness of both arms of 
one subject for the two points of a Weber's compass. 
The left arm was then practised for several weeks. 
It was found that in the right arm, the distance of the 
perception of the two points was reduced from 26.4 
to 15.7 mm., while in the practised left, the reduction 



30 THE DOCTEINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

was from 23.6 to 11.2 mm. He also found that prac- 
tice on one finger of the left hand gave increase in 
ability in all the fingers, but none in the arm. 

Starch (50) had two subjects trace the outline of a 
six-pointed star as seen in a mirror. The subjects 
traced one-half of one outline with the left hand. 
Then one subject made ten complete outlines with 
the right hand while the other made fifty. Both then 
traced another half with the left hand. He found 
that the average improvement in the right hand 
after practice was 88 per cent, while the unpractised 
left hand had improved 83 per cent. The subject 
who had made 50 tracings with the right hand showed 
an improvement of 82 per cent, and 68 per cent, with 
the unpractised left hand. "Altogether the left hand 
profits to the extent of 90 per cent, of the gain made 
by the right hand." Ten laboratory students made 
ten records with the right hand and improved on the 
average 53 per cent. 

Davis (14, 54) had six subjects tap on a telegraph 
key with the right and left index fingers and right and 
left great toes. The right great toe was practised 
from 10-20 days. He found that improvement with 
the right toe was accompanied by 151 per cent, as 
much improvement in the left foot, 100 per cent, as 
much in the right hand, and 83 per cent, as much in 
the left hand. In another experiment, he took the 
girth measurements of both arms of six subjects and the 
number of times that each arm could raise five pounds. 
The subjects were practised from two to four weeks 
on the flexion of the right arm with weight. The 
result showed that practice had effected an increase 
in the girth measurements. The right arm increased 
twice as much as the left, but the left made marked 
gains. 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 31 

Woodworth (54) practised the left hand of one 
subject in hitting a dot at speeds of 40, 120, and 200 
strokes a minute and tested the right hand before and 
after practice. He found improvement in both hands. 

Although in some instances the number of the 
subjects of the investigations was quite limited, 
still, because of the unanimity of results of the eight 
investigators, there can be no question of the effects 
of practice of one member upon its fellow. With 
one exception, all of the paired external organs were 
subjected to experimentation. Experiments were per- 
formed with the hands, fingers, arms, toes, and eyes. 
I do not recall any one's testing the effect of the prac- 
tice of one ear upon the other, nor is it certain that 
this would prove feasible because of the practical 
impossibility of effectively closing up either avenue 
of auditory stimuli. Practice was given to left-hand 
members as well as to right-hand and with the same 
results. While all the results are consistent, differ- 
ences appear in the explanation of the results, in the 
conclusions reached. Some are not in favor of per- 
mitting results of experiments in cross-education to 
contribute to the support of the doctrine of formal 
discipline, while others consider them due to the 
presence of "identical elements," a "transfer of 
training" or a "co-ordination of movements." 

Pedagogical Experiments. 

1. Mathematics — A. College students. Starch (49), 
in investigating the transfer of training in arith- 
metical operations, used eight observers each having 
fourteen days' practice in mental multiplication. 
Seven others were also given the preliminary and 
final tests which consisted of six tests in arithmetical 



32 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

operations and two tests in immediate auditory mem- 
ory span. He found that the practised observers 
showed from 20-40 per cent, more improvement in 
the arithmetical tests than the unpractised; but that 
there was Uttle change in memory span for either 
group. He concludes that the "improvement in the 
end test was due therefore to the 'identical elements' 
acquired in the training series." 

Lewis (30) examined the records of ten different 
classes of Dartmouth students who had taken law 
and mathematics, to discover the relation of reason- 
ing in these two subjects. Fifty per cent, of the best 
students in law were conspicuous for their poor show- 
ing in mathematics, while 42 per cent, of those poorest 
in law stood at the head of the series in mathematics. 

Collins (11), in order to verify Lewis' results in the 
above experiment and in a high-school experiment 
to be described later, had eight instructors rank cer- 
tain students in percentages as to their reasoning 
power. These students were ranked in their ability 
to carry on miscellaneous kinds of reasoning. By 
means of marks from the school records, mathematics 
grades were contrasted with the averages in United 
States history and commercial geography. His results 
are almost exactly opposite to those of Lewis and lead 
to the conclusion that "with the exception of from 20- 
25 per cent, of erratic people, those good in mathe- 
matics are good in other subjects, those of average 
ability in mathematics are of average ability in other 
subjects and those poor in mathematics are poor in 
other subjects." 

Rietz and Shade (38) used college records and found 
high correlation between efficiency in mathematics 
and natural science and also between efficiency in 
mathematics and in foreign languages. 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 33 

B. Elementary and High-School Pupils. Winch 
(67, 68) was most painstaking in his elaborate investi- 
gations with school children. In his efforts to de- 
termine if improvement in numerical accuracy trans- 
fers, he tried five series of experiments, using different 
schools, standards or grades, and neighborhoods. 
In the first four series he divided the class into two 
groups on the basis of record in arithmetical process. 
After one-half had been trained on exercises in "rule" 
sums, a final test in arithmetical reasoning was given 
to both groups. There was an improvement in ac- 
curacy of numerical computation during practice. 
The first series of experiments was performed with 
girls from a poor neighborhood. Standards VI and 
VII, and ages 13 years. He found that, while an im- 
provement was shown by the practised group in 
numerical accuracy, it was insufficient to transfer. 
In his second series of experiments, he used girls from 
a poor neighborhood. Standard II, age 10 years. He 
found considerable improvement in the practice series 
and this was transferred to the final problem work. 
''Whereas the numerical accuracy of the non-practised 
group was decidedly superior to that of the practised 
group in the preliminary tests, yet after the practice 
period, the position of the two groups, section by 
section, is reversed." But from one of his tables, he 
decided that it would be unsafe to conclude that any 
transfer of accuracy had taken place. The third 
series of experiments was given to girls of a good neigh- 
borhood but of poor ability in arithmetic. Standard 
III, age 10 years. He found a positive correlation 
between reasoning and accuracy and improvement in 
numerical accuracy within the practice series. He 
states that ''there certainly appears to be an advan- 



34 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

tage on the side of the practised group in the second, 
third, and lowest sections, but the highest is worse 
in comparison of the preUminary and final tests." 
In the fourth series of experiments, boys were em- 
ployed; they were from a poor neighborhood, did good 
work in arithmetic, were from Standard III, and 
aged 10 years. There was found to be a high correla- 
tion between reasoning and accuracy and very con- 
siderable improvement in the practice series. Every 
section in both groups showed improvement in arith- 
metical reasoning. He thinks that the improvement 
may possibly be due to natural growth and to other 
branches of school instruction. From these four 
series of experiments, he concludes that it seems pos- 
sible to improve the accuracy of numerical computa- 
tion without any certainty of thereby improving the 
accuracy of arithmetical reasoning. ''Therefore, pend- 
ing more conclusive experiments, numerical accuracy 
should be sought for because it is valuable in actual 
life and not because of improvement." In a later 
investigation, he utilized a class of 72 boys, of Stand- 
ard III, with an average age of 10 years. He gave six 
tests in arithmetical reasoning, which enabled him to 
divide the class into two equal groups, one of which 
was practised in arithmetical computation while the 
other was occupied in drawing. After 10 practice 
exercises, six final tests were given to all. There was 
marked improvement in the computation, but he 
found no evidence of the transfer of this improvement 
to arithmetical reasoning. 

Stone (51) investigated the arithmetical abilities of 
6A pupils, the time expended, and the materials of 
the course of study used in securing these abilities. 
Twenty-six school systems from various parts of the 
country were examined. Tests in fundamentals and 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 35 

reasoning were used, requiring the marking of 6000 
papers. He reached the conclusion that there is a 
lack of correspondence among the systems in funda- 
mentals and reasoning; likewise in the four funda- 
mental operations; and in rapidity and accuracy. 
"On the whole, ability in reasoning impUes ability in 
fundamentals no more than ability in such a subject 
as English implies ability in mathematics in general, 
and not so much as ability in Enghsh implies ability 
in such subjects as geography and history." In 
answer to one of his problems, he stated that the nature 
of the product of the first six years of arithmetic is 
complex and that the ''net result is several products, 
rather than a product." He also discovered that 
there was a lack of relationship between time-cost 
and abilities produced, likewise a lack of relation 
between abilities and a good course of study. 

Lewis (30) in his high-school tests, asked the ques- 
tion: "Is there a reasoning faculty, w^hich, by exer- 
cise m mathematics, can be made stronger for other 
kinds of reasoning, as in law or business?" Two tests, 
one containing originals in geometry and the other 
questions in practical reasoning, were given to 24 dif- 
ferent groups of pupils. He found that 63 per cent, 
of the good mathematicians were at the foot of the 
practical reasoning series, and of those at the foot of 
mathematical reasoning, 47 per cent, were at the 
head of practical reasoning. From this and from his 
investigation with the Dartmouth students, he con- 
cluded that the "reasoning faculty is a myth," for 
"students able in mathematical reasoning are not 
even generally able in practical reasoning and law."^ 

* I am informed by Professor Rietz, of the University of Illinois, that 
the original data obtained by Lewis do not, in fact, warrant the con- 
clusions drawn from them. — Editor. 



36 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

2. Spelling. Wallin (59) investigated the question 
whether speUing efficiency acquired in column drills 
transfers to dictated compositions. He dictated work 
in which lists of words occurred which had been pre- 
viously learned by drill. He also dictated a column 
of words. Only words on the list in both cases were 
counted. He concluded that the ''data obtained 
furnished conclusive evidence in favor of an affirm- 
ative answer." The average loss of efficiency through 
transfer from dictated column to composition was 
1.44 per cent, while there were five instances in which 
there was an actual transfer gain. He concluded 
therefore "that column drills in spelling may produce 
a positive increment of spelling efficiency in dictated 
compositions or connected writing." 

3. English Grammar. Briggs (9), in order to ascer- 
tain the disciplinary effects of formal English gram- 
mar, gave 54 tests to from 25-30 children of the 2d- 
7th grades in the Horace Mann School. Among the 
tests were those to discover the ability to see likenesses 
and differences; the ability to judge, amend when 
faulty, and to apply a definition thoroughly; the 
ability to make a rule, to judge reasons, to select facts, 
to reason in arithmetic; the ability to reason syllo- 
gistically, to detect catches, to make prompt and 
accurate associations, to follow directions, to correct 
errors and point off sentences, and tests of the knowl- 
edge of formal grammar after the training period. 
Three 30-minute periods per week during six months 
were devoted to the investigation. The first set of 
tests was given to all the children. Then for three 
months, the children of one room were drilled in 
formal grammar, wherein emphasis was laid on gram- 
mar as a strict science and an attempt to secure a 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 37 

general ideal of method (like Ruediger's) was made. 
During this time, the second room of children did 
work in composition and language. There were then 
given the second set of tests, after which the condi- 
tions were reversed for three months in the two rooms. 
Finally, the first set of tests was given again to all 
the children. From his results Briggs concludes that 
"these particular children after the amount of formal 
grammar that they had, do not, as measured by the 
means employed, show in any of the abilities tested 
improvement that may be attributed to their training 
in formal grammar." "The burden of proof now 
rests with those who believe in a strengthening mental 
discipline from formal grammar." 

4. Mental Traits. A. Memonj. Sleight (46), in order 
to discover if memory training is general or specific, 
experimented with two classes of women students in 
a Training College, the average age being 18-19. 
The tests were of immediate memory and made use 
of letters, nonsense syllables, dates, poetry, and prose 
substance. 

Sleight also investigated the same question with 
three classes of pupils aged 11-12 years in tliree dif- 
ferent schools. Each class was tested with 10 differ- 
ent kinds of memory material and then sorted into 
four groups of equal average ability. One group was 
practised on poetry, the second on tables, the third 
on reproducing the gist of prose, while the fourth re- 
ceived no training. After three weeks of practice, a 
second series of tests was followed by three more 
weeks of practice, in turn followed by a third series 
of tests. The tests made use of letters, dictation, 
names, geographical places, nonsense syllables, dates, 
poetry, prose, substance of prose, and points in a 



38 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

cii'cle. A new feature was a cyclic arrangement by 
means of which all three test series could be considered 
equal in difficulty. Finally, some time after the third 
series, a fourth series was given. 

The results with both the college and elementary 
pupils showed no general improvement of the prac- 
tised over the unpractised. In nonsense syllables 
there was considerable improvement of the trained 
over the untrained, but only with those who practised 
on poetry or tables. This was ascribed to the presence 
of rhythm as a common element and the deduction 
is made that the effects of practice are transferable 
when common elements exist. Practice in prose 
substance effected an improvement in that form of 
memory, and in no other; it had, in fact, a disastrous 
effect on the power to memorize mechanically. The 
conclusion is reached that ''we must therefore face the 
fact that some practice has the effect of diminishing 
the power to memorize some other material," 

Winch (63-66) has conducted four elaborate series 
of memory experunents with school children, two to 
ascertain if memory is improvable with practice and 
two to discover if improvement in memory is trans- 
ferable. In studying immediate memory, he exposed 
sets of consonants to view for a short time. The 
subjects were 25 girls of Standard VII, ages 12-15, 
and 33 boys of Standards VI and VII, ages 11-14. 
His conclusion from these two sets of experiments 
was that a wider range of age and standard would be 
necessary to answer questions as to the improvability 
of memory by practice, improvement with age, and 
relation to general intellectual proficiency. A second 
series of experiments was then given to 39 girls, 
Standards II-VIII, and ages 8-14, chosen on an age 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 39 

basis. Results were compared with the school marks 
over the space of one year. He concluded that mem- 
ory improved with practice, that general mental 
ability is accompanied by ''good memory," that 
"good memory" is usually accompanied by general 
proficiency, and that there is a general improvement 
rising with age and standard. Another series of 
experiments was given to girls from two divisions of 
Standard VI, six from the upper and six from the 
lower division, and with the same results. In a later 
series of experiments on auditory memory, conducted 
along similar lines to those just described, he verified 
his conclusions with visual memory. He attempted 
to answer the question: ''Is the improvement in mem- 
ory gained through practice in one subject of instruc- 
tion, transferred to another subject which has not 
been practised?" He divided each class into two 
groups of equal ability, determined partly by test and 
partly by the opinion of the teacher. He gave three 
series of experiments to girls from Standards VI and 
VII, average age of 12-13, and from three schools of 
different neighborhoods. In all cases, the practice 
was on poetry, while in two cases the tests were his- 
torical and in the other geographical. WTiile the prac- 
tised half was studying poetry, the other group was 
occupied in writing or working sums. In the three 
series, he found that the practised group was superior 
to the unpractised and therefore concluded that 
"improvement, gained by practice in memorizing one 
subject of instruction, is transferred to memory work 
in other subjects whose nature is certainly diverse 
from that in which the improvement was gained." 
This conclusion, he goes on to say, is true for this 
age and the attainments of these children. In another 



40 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

article on the transfer of improvement in memory in 
school children, he reported his results in answer to 
the problems: ''Whether there is any transfer of im- 
provement in rote memory for meaningless things to 
substance memory for stories (1) by an auditory 
method, (2) by a visual method," and ''whether there 
is any transfer of improvement in rote memory for 
things with meaning — for example, poetry — to sub- 
stance memory for stories." He conducted three 
series of experiments. The first series was given to 
boys and gu-ls of Standard III, of an average age of 
10 years. Three preliminary tests in substance mem- 
ory consisting of stories read aloud, also some tests in 
rote memory for meaningless things consisting of 
consonants read aloud, were given, and the class was 
divided into two equal groups on the basis of the 
tests in substance memory. One group received 
three practice exercises in rote memory, while the 
other group drew difficult geometrical designs. Then 
a further test in substance memory was given to both 
groups. The results showed an improvement within 
the practice medium itself from 11.9, the first prac- 
tice test's average mark per child per test to 15.8 
average mark per child for the third test, out of a 
maximum of 24. The comparison of the final and 
preliminary tests shows that there is a steady improve- 
ment, which is greatest in the practised group; and 
"about as much or more improvement, reckoned in 
percentages, as has been made in the practice medium 
itself — rote memory for meaningless things — has been 
transferred to the substance memory." The second 
series of experiments was with girls of Standard IV, 
age 10 years. Four tests in substance memory, con- 
sisting of written stories, were given, and as a result, 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 41 

the class was divided into two equal groups. Through 
several weeks one of the groups did 13 practice per- 
iods of 9 exercises each in rote memory, consisting of 
the learning of consonants exposed visually, and the 
other group worked exercises in arithmetic. Then 
both groups worked four more tests in substance 
memory. There was an improvement within the 
practice medium itself; also "both groups show im- 
provement in the final tests and it seems fair to sup- 
pose that the excess of improvement in the practised 
over the unpractised group may be a measure of im- 
provement due to the special practice in rote memory." 
In the unpractised group there was an improvement 
of 16 per cent., while in the practised group there was 
an improvement of 21 per cent., probably due to 
special practice. In the third series of experiments, 
the girls were from Standard V, 12 years of age and 
backward in scholarship. There were four tests on 
substance memory for stories, followed by division 
of the class into two equal groups. One group prac- 
tised rote exercises on poetry. Then four final tests 
were given to both groups. All the work was done 
visually. The results showed an improvement in 
rote memory for every individual in the practised 
group; and "the excess improvement of the practised, 
about 6 per cent, in the final test, may perhaps be 
attributed to the effect of the practice exercises in 
rote memory." His conclusions from these experi- 
ments in regard to the transfer of improvement in 
memory are: "Improvement through practice in 
rote memory is followed by improvement in substance 
memories for stories." "Improvement by practice 
in one mental function may produce an improvement 
in the other." 



42 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

B. Habits. Squire (3) insisted on neatness and 
accuracy in the preparation of the arithmetic papers 
by the 13 pupils in the second half of a third grade. 
It was found that there was an improvement in the 
arithmetic papers, but that this did not transfer to 
the language and spelling papers, in which there was 
a decrease in both accuracy and neatness. 

C. Concentration of attention. Miss Aiken's (1) 
experiments on the concentration of attention by the 
use of daily exercises to quicken the perceptive facul- 
ties, to cultivate the habit of accuracy in seeing and 
hearing, and to cultivate quickness of discrimination, 
and their amazing results have already been referred 
to. 

Dallenbach's (13) problem was to find out the 
effect of a daily drill for 15 minutes conducted during 
a period of 17 weeks. The subjects were 11 girls and 
18 boys, of ages 7-10. The materials consisted of 
charts, of numbers, letters, words, geometrical figures, 
etc. The experiment lasted for 17 weeks, and com- 
prised a week of fore-practice foHowed by a week of 
tests with 4 weeks of drill; the two latter alternated 
until 4 weeks of tests and 12 weeks of drill series had 
been given. Ten months later, another test series 
was given to 31 children, 19 of whom had had the 
training. His conclusions are that the effect of drill 
is persistent, and that boys surpass girls in visual 
apprehension. During the following school term, 
there was a striking general rise in the school grades 
of these pupils, seemingly due to his formal drill 
exercises, also a special test by the Aussage method, 
showed that the practised children were superior in 
recall and description to their unpractised school- 
mates when tested some 50 weeks after the termina- 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 43 

tion of the special drill. ''Original work of drilling 
the children has produced a training that has not only 
persisted, but also 'spread' to some extent to other 
functions." He concluded that he has "evidence in 
favor of a restricted belief in formal discipline." 

D. Observation. Bennett (6) investigated to find 
the result of special practice in discriminating different 
saturations of blue upon other sense powers in the 
case of 16 children, 11 years old, from the Speyer 
School of Teachers College. A Milton-Bradley color 
wheel was used with a set of the larger and smaller 
disks. The children recorded their judgments with 
an 7 or according as the saturation of the inner disk 
or outer disk was greater or with an S if it was the 
same for both. Preliminary and final tests were in 
discriminating different mixtures of red and white, 
of yellow and green, of orange and black, and different 
pitches. They practised with the blue and white 
disks for half an hour, twice a week, from October to 
March. Bennett found that ability to discriminate 
different saturations of blue increased with practice 
in the training series. Ability to discriminate differ- 
ent mixtures of red and white, of yellow and green, 
and of orange and black was greatly improved in the 
final tests. In most cases, there was an improvement 
in the test series, both before and after training. 
There was an improvement of 20 per cent, for the 
boys and 23 per cent, for the girls in discrimination 
of pitch, but it was "not at all commensurate with 
that in the color field." He concludes that "training 
in the discrimination of some colors is highly effective 
in the discrimination of others, much less so with 
tones." 

E. Quickness, accuracy, attention, etc. Norsworthy 
(36) sought to find individuals with differences in one 



44 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

trait, then to measure those individuals in other 
traits and to compare the results. Tests were given 
in multiplication, in observing misspelled words, in 
marking words containing e and r, in observing the 
word hoy wherever it occurred, and in marking semi- 
circles scattered amongst all sorts of geometrical 
forms. Results led to the conclusion that it is "prob- 
able that certain functions which are of importance in 
school-work, such as quickness in arithmetic, accuracy 
in spelling, attention to forms, etc., are highly special- 
ized and not secondary results of some general func- 
tion." In other words, there is no such thing as 
general memory, quickness, accuracy, or observation, 
y/ F. Ideas of Method. Judd (2) required two groups 
^ of pupils in the 5th and 6th grades to hit with a small 
dart a target which was placed under twelve inches of 
water. The difficulty involved was due to deflection 
of light through refraction. One group was given a 
full theoretical explanation of refraction while the 
other was kept in ignorance. The results of the first 
test were the same for both groups. Then the twelve 
inches of water were reduced to four. The boys 
ignorant of the theory were very much confused, while 
the others were not. ''Theory was not of value until 
it was backed by practice." The conclusion is there- 
fore drawn that ''every experience has in it the possi- 
bilities of a generalization." Here there was a trans- 
ference of method. 

G. Ideals. Ruediger (40) tested the point: "Does 
the ideal of neatness brought out in connection with, 
and applied in, one school subject function in the 
other school subjects?" He experimented with 83 
pupils from the 7th grade of three schools, each in a 
different city. In the written work of one school 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 45 

subject, he paid all the attention possible to the habit 
and ideal of neatness. He talked with the class 
about neatness, though not referring specifically to 
the other school subjects. He collected at least three 
papers in each subject before he brought up the matter 
of neatness and then one or more papers a week in 
three or more subjects. The experiment covered 
eight weeks. The marks for all school subjects were 
raised although the gain was greater in the subject in 
which neatness had been emphasized. ''Evidently 
neatness made conscious as an ideal or aim in connec- 
tion with one school subject does function in other 
school subjects." He would ascribe transference to 
''identity of aim." 

Reviewing the pedagogical experiments, as in the 
psychological, we find two camps with reference to 
the question of transfer. Starch, Collins, Rietz 
and Shade, Wallin, Winch, Ruediger, Dallenbach, 
Aiken, Bennett, and Judd found evidences of a spread 
of training or of correlation of abilities. Lewis, 
Stone, Briggs, Sleight, and Squire, because of their 
results, would not subscribe to the doctrine, at least 
in the aspects that they studied. Of these investi- 
gators, certainly the most elaborate experiments were 
performed by Winch and Sleight; and unfortunately 
for the solution of the problem, they disagree. Starch 
ascribes the evident transfer to the "identical ele- 
ments" in the practice and test series, while there 
was no transfer from arithmetical computation to 
auditory memory span. In Wallin's expermients, 
transfer of spelhng efficiency from column drills to 
dictated composition may likewise be ascribed to 
"identical elements." Winch's conclusion that "un- 
provement gained by practice in memorizing one 



46 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

subject is transferred to memory work in other sub- 
jects whose nature is certainly diverse from that in 
which the improvement was gained" is criticised by 
Bagley (3) on the ground that ''the nature of the 
subject-matter is not so diverse as to exclude alto- 
gether the operation of identical elements, nor is the 
difference between the two groups in memory capacity 
at the close of the test so great that one needs to as- 
sume a 'general' function of memory has been trained." 
Ruediger ascribes transference to "identity of aim," 
and Judd's target experiment illustrates the trans- 
ference of "identity of procedure or method." Lewis, 
while finding no evidence of the correlation of reason- 
ing ability in mathematics and law, believes like 
Ruediger, and Bagley in the transference of ideals. 
Sleight, like Judd and Bergstrom, found evidence of 
interference effects. From such a varied mass of re- 
sults and explanations, it is impossible to do more 
than speculate as to the validity or falsity of the 
doctrine in connection with pedagogical investiga- 
tions. 

Summary of the Historical Review. 

After this necessarily brief review of some thirty 
psychological experiments and twenty-odd pedago- 
gical ones, it is important to discover the consensus 
of belief arrived at by scientific investigation. Ebert 
and Meumann, Coover and Angell, Judd, Winch, 
Wallin, Fracker, Urbantschitsch, Miinsterberg, Dal- 
lenbach, and Spearman may be considered among 
the more prominent proponents of the doctrine of 
formal discipline. On the' other hand Thorndike 
and Woodworth, Stone, Sleight, Burt, Heck, Whipple, 
Swift, Bolton, DeGarmo, Henderson, Jastrow, Nors- 
worthy, and Squire, either as a result of personal in- 



EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 47 

vestigation, or a review of experimental work in this 
field, align themselves in the main with the opposi- 
tion. Nearly all admit improvability with practice 
and its transference to material, similar or closely 
related in content or form. Prominent among the 
believers in a ''spread of training" where "identical 
elements" exist are Thorndike and Woodworth, 
Whipple, Starch, and Sleight. The term "Identical 
Elements" covers much; it includes identity of sub- 
stance or content, identity of form or procedure, 
identity of aim or ideal. All psychologists seem to be 
in accord that where there is identity of substance, 
improvement increases according to the general laws 
of a practice curve until a physiological limit has been 
reached. Among those who emphasize identity of 
method or procedure as an explanation of transfer- 
ence, with great stress on the importance of concen- 
tration of attention, are Thorndike and Woodworth, 
Munsterberg, Angell, Coover, Bagley, Ruger, Judd 
and Tracker. Ruediger, Ruger, Lewis, and Bagley 
are impressed with the necessity for an aim or ideal. 

Probably Spearman (48), in his able article on 
Qualified and Unqualified "Formal Training," has 
expressed the idea that will bring reconciliation be- 
tween the two opposing factions when he states that 
the "attack is not against formalism utterly, but 
against unqualified formalism." He advances four 
qualifications: (1) Transference is not peculiar to 
form. "As far as economy is concerned, all sorts of 
training, formal, material, or a mixture, would ap- 
pear to be about on an equal footing." (2) Transfer 
must always be regarded quantitatively. After a 
review of Sleight's experiments, the conclusion is 
drawn that "it is evident that the training is indeed 



48 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

transferred from one material to another, but only in 
proportion to the similarity between them." (3) 
Transference is not always improvement. He cites 
conclusions of Judd, Fracker, and Sleight in support. 
(4) There is a need of separation for transfer. For 
example, procedure may be developed into a clearly 
conceived method; this thenceforth becomes an inde- 
pendent, and sometimes exceedingly useful tool of 
thought. An instance is Judd's experiment with the 
target under water. ''An even more important in- 
stance of separating an element from the complex in 
which it occurs is the evolution of particular impulses 
into a general maxim or ideal." Compare Squire's 
negative results with Ruediger's positive ones. He 
concludes by saying that the 'Hwo chief opposing 
schools are at cross purposes; the one is defending what 
may be called qualified formalism, while the other is 
attacking unqualified formalism." The great problem 
is ''how these facts are to be utilized in the re-ordering 
of our educational system." 



PART II. ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION. 

I. Introduction. 

The original investigation was undertaken to secure 
experimental data in regard to one of the aspects of 
the doctrine of formal discipline, expressed in familiar 
language of ''training observation." Little has been 
done upon this problem experimentally. Several per- 
sons, as has been noted in the historical part of this 
essay, have investigated the transfer of improvement 
of rote memory to substance memory, the transfer of 
arithmetical abilities, and the transfer of reasoning 
abilities. This particular "faculty" or habit of obser- 
vation was selected because the writer, a teacher of 
biology, could give the tests in the ordinary routine 
of the classroom without seriously disturbing the re- 
quired work and also without the subjects suffering the 
disadvantages incurred when the tests are foreign to 
the immediate school program and conducted by a 
stranger. No explanations were made to the pupils 
as to the object of the experiments. In connection 
with a previous experiment, they had had a few tests 
somewhat similar to several of the non-biological tests. 
The results of these tests had been reported to the 
pupils individually at the conclusion of the entire set 
of tests and had been tabulated on the board by record- 
ing the name and percentage of the pupil receiving the 
highest rating in each test. This previous experience 
may have acted as an incentive in the present work, as 
they were told that they would again be informed of 
the results. When all three series of experiments had 
been completed, pupils were given their individual 

49 



50 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

ratings in the various tests, with tabulation of the 
names and percentages of the leaders for each test of 
the three series of all three classes. 

II. Subjects. 

The subjects were all pupils in the first term of the 
freshman class of a New York City High School. 
When the third series of tests was given they had entered 
upon the second term. These pupils were distributed 
in three classes. 

Class 1 had 12 boys and 20 girls; Class 2 had 10 boys 
and 18 girls; Class S had 12 boys and 12 girls whose 
results are tabulated in the following pages. Several 
others in each class took the tests, but because of irre- 
gular attendance, absence from one whole series of 
tests or more, or because there was an odd number of 
boys or girls after division into two equal groups, their 
results had to be discarded. 

The ages of the pupils varied from 12 to 17. 



Class 1, average age, boys 13.7 
Class 2, '' " " 14.1 
Class 3, " " " 13.8 



girls 14 years. 
13.8 " 
14.1 " 



III. Time Schedule of Tests. 

The tests in the first and second series were given in 
the afternoon. Class 1 recited from 12:50-1:30; Class 
2 recited from 1:35-2:15; Class 3 recited from 2:15- 
2 :55. The tests were given immediately after the class 
had assembled. 

The first series of tests was given on April 22, 23, 
24, 25, 26, 29, 30. The practice series occurred on the 
10 school days from May 15 to 28. The second series 
of tests was given on June 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11. The 
third series of tests was given on November 4, 6, 8, 11, 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 51 

12, 13, 14. Between the second and third series, the 
classes were promoted and were not kept intact. The 
classes during the third series recited during the three 
periods from 9 :30 to 1 1 :45. 

IV. Practice Series. 

On the basis of averages obtained from the tests of 
the first series, each class was divided as nearly possible 
into two groups. In each class effort was made to 
place the pupil receiving the higher average of the two 
highest pupils on the side which was to receive no prac- 
tice, while the second highest was placed in the division 
to be practised. This method was continued until the 
list was exhausted. Thus among successive pairs, there 
was usually a slight advantage on the non-practised side, 
and the totals of the two groups in all three classes 
showed the non-practised side to have the advantage 
at the end of the preliminary tests. 

On May 15, the practice series was begun and con- 
tinued for ten minutes daily until the expiration of 
two weeks. While the one half of the class was observ- 
ing and describing the biological material of the prac- 
tice series, the other half was writing answers to ques- 
tions on topics previously assigned for home-study from 
the text-book. The text-book work was required of 
all for outside study, but only the non-practised half 
wrote answers to questions. In order to prevent 
failure to do the assignment, the pupils were not in- 
formed in regard to the procedure until the class assem- 
bled each day of the practice tests. All the other 
biological work was the same for all classes. The 
classes were kept in ignorance of the reason for division 
into two groups during the practice weeks, and al- 
though they were quite interested as to the cause and 



52 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

speculated somewhat about it, no reference to the 
previous tests was made as an explanation. It ap- 
peared, however, that the non-practised half considered 
that the practised half must be superior as they were 
chosen to do the extra tests. The reverse, however, 
was true for successive pairs as far as the preliminary- 
tests were concerned. None of the pupils knew that a 
second or a third series was to be undertaken until 
each was actually begun. They were then reminded 
of the previous tests, informed that they would learn 
their results later, and that comparisons would be made 
between their work in the first and second series of 
the tests. Absolutely no reference was made to the 
practised or unpractised half, and it was not apparent 
that the pupils thought that there was any connection 
between the practice and the series of tests. 

During the practice series, while actually engaged 
in the ten minutes' daily practice, the practised were 
separated from the unpractised. During both the 
first and second series and throughout the term, the 
pupils occupied the seats which had been individually 
assigned to them at the beginning of the term. 

V. Method of Conducting the Tests. 

The directions were given orally. Before each test, 
paper was distributed to each pupil, who ruled it, if 
the nature of the test so required, inscribed his name 
thereupon, and was informed of the content or material 
of the test. From previous experiments, the pupils 
had learned to obey directions, and collect papers with 
almost military precision. The signals used were: 
Start! Stop! Look! Write! Draw! Collect! 

Time was kept by the second-hand of a watch. 



OEIGINAL INVESTIGATION 53 

VI. Details of the Tests. 
Series I, April 22 to 30. 

Test 1. April 22. Each pupil received a twig of 
horse chestnut with an unopened bud and one with 
developing leaves. The direction given was to write a 
complete description of these stems. Time 10 minutes. 

Test 2. April 23. A picture was suddenly exposed 
for 30 seconds, and the pupils were permitted 5 minutes 
to write down their descriptions. 

The picture represented a girl clad in an old fashioned, gaily colored 
dress. Standing up on its hind legs beside the girl, was a large dog, 
while several puppies were froUcking on the ground. The background 
indicated a country scene with rocks, trees, and hills in the distance and 
a water-fall near-by. 

Test 3. April 23. Each pupil received a forsythia 
flower and was directed to write a complete description. 
Time 5 minutes. 

Test 4. April 24. Ten nonsense syllables of two 
letters each, printed in two rows on oak tag, were ex- 
posed for 30 seconds. (See Fig. 1.) Pupils were 
directed to place the right syllable in the right place. 
One minute was allowed to write them. 

Test 5. Branches of lilac leaves were distributed to 
each pupil, and directions given to write a complete 
description of the lilac leaves. Time 8 minutes. 

Test 6. April 25. A nonsense figure (Fig. 2) con- 
sisting of 10 lines, drawn with black pencil on oak tag, 
was exposed for 30 seconds and one minute was allowed 
for drawing it. 

Test 7. April 25. A chart (Fig. 3) having 10 
geometrical figures in two rows, drawn with black pen- 
cil on oak tag, was exposed for 30 seconds, following the 
direction to draw the right figure in the right space of 
their paper, which had been ruled beforehand by the 



54 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 











« 


s 




o 








a 






It 




s 


c 




o 


to 










b 








a 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



55 



6 



5Q THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 









ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



57 



CM 


V 




OD 


lO 




W 


00 






t-4 




W 


« 




e» 


^ 




■o 


t^ 




w 


(M 




ft 


<» 




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«> 





6 



58 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

pupils. Three minutes were allowed for reproduction 
of the figures. 

Test 8. April 26. A chart having ten two-place 
numbers in two rows printed on it (Fig. 4) was exposed 
for 30 seconds with the direction to place the right 
combination in the right space on their ruled paper. 
One minute was allowed for recording. 

Test 9. April 29. Pupils were permitted to ex- 
amine specimens of scouring rush or horsetail for one 
minute and then, with the specimens hidden from view, 
were given five minutes to describe their observations. 

Test 10. April 29. In a similar manner, they were 
allowed one minute to examine a maple seedling and 5 
minutes to describe it from memory. 

Test 11. April 30. A colored chart with various 
anatomical features of the pea flower was exposed for 
30 seconds, an allowance of 5 minutes was made for 
description. This test was not used in the comparison 
of the three series, because it was found that, as the 
pupils had not yet studied flowers, they were unable 
through lack of technical terms to describe much that 
they had seen. 

Test 12. April 30. A figure was outlined in the air 
with a pencil point. (See Fig. 5). Pupils were in- 
formed that 10 lines would be drawn and that at the 
end they were to reproduce them on paper. 

Test 13. May 1. A colored chart of the potato 
plant, similar to Test 11, was exposed, but was not 
used in the series, for the same reason as in Test 11. 

For the nature of the practice series which was 
carried on May 15 to 19 and May 22 to 26, consult the 
tabular statement, page 69. 

Series II. June 3 to 11. 
Test 1. June 3. Each pupil received a twig of 
sassafras and was allowed 10 minutes to write as com- 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



59 




60 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

plete a description as possible. Because of a change in 
the program, Class 3 did not recite on this day and 
was unable to take the test. 

Test 2. June 4. Another picture was exposed for 
30 seconds and five minutes were permitted for a descrip- 
tion of the picture. 

A little girl in a pink dress was standing near a brass table in a richly 
furnished room. Rugs covered the hard-wood floor and an easy chair 
and pillow were in the foreground. A large vase of cattails and palms 
was on the floor and another containing pampas grass was on the table. 

Test 3. June 4. Sjn-inga flowers were distributed 
to each pupil and five minutes' allowance was made for 
a description. 

Test 4. June 5. Another chart with ten nonsense 
syllables of two letters each was exposed for 30 seconds. 
The arrangement was like Fig. 1, but the syllables were: 
ro, fe, cu, eh, ad, in, og, na, qi, ub. One minute was 
given for recording the syllables in the right place. 

Test 5. June 5. A branch of forsythia leaves was 
distributed to each pupil, and eight minutes' time was 
given in which to write as complete a description as 
possible. 

Test 6. June 6. Another nonsense figure of ten 
Imes (Fig. 6) was exposed for 30 seconds. Allowance 
for reproduction was one minute. 

Test 7. June 6. Ten geometrical figures (Fig. 7) 
were exposed on a chart for 30 seconds after the ad- 
monition to place the figure in the correct place. 
Three minutes were allowed to draw the figures. 

Test 8. June 7. Ten two-place figures (similar to 
Fig. 4) were exposed on a chart for 30 seconds. One 
minute was allowed for recording in the proper places. 

Test 9. June 10. A fruiting moss plant was dis- 
tributed to each pupil. After one minute's observa- 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



61 







62 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 






d 



d 




ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 63 

tion the material was put out of sight and five minutes 
were allowed to record observations. 

Test 10. June 10. A pumpkin seedling was treated 
in a similar manner to Test 9. 

Test 11. June 11. A colored chart of a grape 
flower was exposed for 30 seconds and 5 minutes' time 
was allowed for recording. This was not used in the 
comparison of the series. 

Test 12. June 11. Another figure of ten lines 
(Fig. 8) was indicated by tracing the figure with a 
pencil point in the air. When completed the pupils 
drew what they had seen. 

Test 13. June 12. A colored chart of the wild 
carrot was exposed for 30 seconds and 5 minutes were 
allowed for a description. This test was not used in 
the final comparison. 

Series III. November 6 to 14- 

After the summer vacation, the writer, having in an 
advanced class all of the pupils that had both remained 
in school and had been promoted and not having had 
time yet to rate the papers of the second series, deemed 
that it might be useful to give a third series of tests. 
The pupils were now studying zoology and physiology, 
whereas during the previous term they had been study- 
ing botany. The pupils were reminded of the previous 
tests, told that they would learn their results (which 
had been delayed because of the interruption of the 
investigator's plans by other imperative demands) 
and were asked to undertake a third series of tests. 

The third series could not be conducted until Novem- 
ber, and unfortunately, the biological material avail- 
able afforded little variety and was, I think, on the 
whole more difficult to describe. Besides, the pupils 
had not studied botany since June, and moreover, 



64 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 





ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 65 

they may have thought that botanical material would 
not count toward their grades in a zoological course. 

Test. 1. Nov. 4, Pupils received branches of 
willow. Ten minutes were allowed for a complete 
description. 

Test 2. Nov. 6. Another picture was exposed for 
30 seconds, and five minutes were allowed for writing. 

A typical Holland scene was indicated by the wooden shoes and the 
peasants' caps of the boy and girl in the foreground. The girl (hold- 
ing a baby in her arms) was standing on a wharf, while the boy who 
was seated on a pile was just pulling something out of the water at the 
end of a long line attached to his fishing pole. In the background were 
lawns, trees, and several smaU houses. 

Test 3. Nov. 6. Each pupil received a flower of 
sweet alyssum and was allowed five minutes for record- 
ing observations. 

Test 4. Nov. 8 A chart with 10 nonsense syllables 
of two letters each, printed on oak tag, was exposed for 
30 seconds and one minute allowed for recording. 
The arrangement was like that of Fig. 1, but the syl- 
lables were : gi, re, qo, ib, om, ep, da, uh, av, cu. 

Test 5. Nov. 8. Honeysuckle branches were dis- 
tributed and eight minutes given for descriptions. 

Test 6. Nov. 11. A nonsense figure (Fig. 9) was 
exposed for 30 seconds and one minute was allowed for 
its reproduction. 

Test 7. Nov. 11. A chart (Fig. 10) with 10 geo- 
metrical figures was exposed for 30 seconds. Three 
minutes were given for reproduction. 

Test 8. Nov. 12. A chart with ten two-place 
figures (like Fig. 4) was exposed for 30 seconds. One 
minute for recording. 

Test 9. Nov. 13. Each pupil received a pressed 
fern frond, was allowed one minute for observation, 
and five minutes for description from memory. 

Test 10. Because of inability to obtain any material, 
suitable for comparison with these tests in the other 
series, the test was omitted. 



66 



THE DOCTRINE OF FOEMAL DISCIPLINE 






ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



67 



(CD 




a 









68 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 







ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



69 



Test 11. Nov. 14. The chart of the buttercup 
flower was exposed for 30 seconds and 5 minutes were 
allowed for description. This test was not used. 

Test 12. Nov. 14. Another figure of ten lines 
(Fig. 11) was outlined in the air with the tip of the 
experimenter's pencil. The pupils reproduced it on 
paper. 

Test 13. Nov. 15. A chart of the poppy flower was 
exposed for 30 seconds and five minutes allowed for 
description, but it was not used in the series. 

The following tabular arrangement will serve to bring the arrange- 
ment of the test material into compact presentation. 



No. Date 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 



5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



April 

22 

23 

23 

24 

24 

25 

25 

26 

29 

29 

30 

30 

May 
1 



Date 
May 

15 

16 

17 

20 

21 
22 
23 
24 
27 
28 



SERIES 1 

Test Exposure Time for 

recording 

Horsechestnut stem 10 min. 

Picture 30 sec. 5 min. 

Forsythia flower 5 min. 

10 syllables 30 sec. 1 min. 

Lilac leaves 8 min. 

Nonsense figure 30 sec. 1 min. 

Geometrical figures 30 sec. 3 min. 

10 2-place figures 30 sec. 1 min. 

Scouring rush 1 min. 5 min. 

Maple seedling 1 min. 5 min. 

Pea chart 30 sec. 5 min. 
Figure in air 

Potato chart 30 sec. 5 min. 
Practice Series 

Material Recording 

Description of the lilac flower Ten 

Description of the box-elder leaf minutes 

Description of the stem, leaf, and for 

flower of gill-run-over-the-groimd each 

Description of flower-stalk and test 

flowers of the Uly-of-the-valley 
Description of the horsechestnut flower 
Description of the buttercup flower 
Description of the mustard flower 
Description of the dogwood flower 
Description of the deutzia flower 
Description of the columbine flower 



70 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 







SERIES 2 






No. 


Date 
June 


Test 


Exposure 


Time for 
recording 


1 


3 


Sassafras stem 




10 min. 


2 


4 


Picture 


30 sec. 


5 min. 


3 


4 


Syringa flower 




5 min. 


4 


6 


10 syllables 


30 sec. 


1 min. 


6 


5 


Forsythia leaves 




8 min. 


6 


6 


Nonsense figure 


30 sec. 


1 min. 


7 


6 


Geometrical figures 


30 sec. 


3 min. 


8 


7 


10 2-place figures 


30 sec. 


1 min. 


9 


10 


Moss plant 


1 min. 


5 min. 


10 


10 


Pumpkin seedling 


1 min. 


5 min. 


11 


11 


Grape chart 


30 sec. 


5 min. 


12 


11 


Figure in air 






13 


12 


Wild carrot 

SERIES 3 


30 sec. 


5 min. 



No. 


Date 


Test 


Exposure 


Time for 
recording 




Nov. 








1 


4 


Willow stem 




10 min. 


2 


6 


Picture 


30 sec. 


5 min. 


3 


6 


Alyssimi flower 




5 min. 


4 


8 


10 syllables 


30 sec. 


1 min. 


6 


8 


Honeysuckle leaves 




8 min. 


6 


11 


Nonsense figm-e 


30 sec. 


1 min. 


7 


11 


Geometrical figures 


30 sec. 


3 min. 


8 


12 


10 2-place figures 


30 sec. 


1 min. 


9 


13 


Fern frond 


1 min. 


5 min. 


10 










11 


14 


Buttercup chart 


30 sec. 


5 min. 


12 


14 


Figm-e in air 






13 


15 


Poppy chart 


30 sec. 


5 min. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS 71 

VII. Marking the Tests and Use of the Scores. 

The author was assisted in the marking of the tests 
by her sister, who had had four years of office experience 
in one of New York's elementary schools. She rated 
the 4th, 7th, and 8th tests of each series. Both rated 
together the 6th and 12th tests of each series. The 
author herself rated Tests 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10. Tests 11 
and 13 were discarded. 

Rating of the Tests of Series 1. 

Tests 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10 were rated in the following 
manner: one credit was allowed for every descriptive 
noun, adjective, verb, and adverb. In fact, every 
word or statement presenting an idea, a modification 
of that idea, or an action, was allowed one credit. 
Credit was not allowed for the same word repeated 
in several connections. The rating therefore indicates 
the sum total of the observations made in regard to 
the object. 

Tests 4, 7, 8 were rated in the following manner: 
10 credits were allowed for each correct syllable, correct 
geometrical figure and correct two-place number which 
was also correctly placed; thus as there were 10 of 
each, it was possible to obtain 100 per cent. If the 
correct syllable, correct geometrical figure, or correct 
two-place number was displaced one more to the right, 
left, above, or below, one credit was deducted, if two 
places to the right or left, two credits were deducted, 
etc. 

Tests 6 and 12 were rated in the following manner: 
one credit was given to each correct line of the ten 
comprising the figure. It was not required that the 
figures of Test 12 should be entirely symmetrical, but 
full credit was given for each line that indicated that 
the subject knew approximately the direction of the 
lines. 



72 THE DOCTKINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

Use of Results of Series 1 . 

The average was obtained of the results of each 
pupil's work in the eleven tests. These averages 
formed the basis of the division of the classes for the 
practice series. 

In each class, the boy receiving the highest average 
was placed on the non-practised side while the boy with 
the next highest average was placed on the side to 
receive practice. This was continued until the list 
was exhausted. The same method was followed with 
the girls. 

Rating of the Practice Series. 

All of the ten tests of the practice series were rated 
by the investigator in the same manner as were Tests 
1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10. The tests were rated in the order in 
which they had been given: No. 1 first and No. 10 last. 

Rating of the Tests of Series 2 and 3. 

Test 1 of Series 2 was rated and then Test 1 of Series 
3 was rated for the same pupil. The grading of these 
tests was then carefully compared with the rating 
of Tests 1 of Series 1 to avoid as much as possible any 
discrepancy in the rating. This method was followed 
for each pupil throughout the six tests. 

Tests 4, 7, 8, of the 2d and 3d series were rated in 
the following manner: After the assistant had carefully 
reconsidered her marking of Test 4 in Series 1, she 
rated Test 4 of Series 2 and then of Series 3. The 
same method was followed in Tests 7 and 8. 

Tests 6 and 12 were rated by both markers, working 
together. Each pupil's three test papers in the three 
series were compared individually to establish improve- 
ment or decrease of ability of that particular individual. 
The investigators then agreed upon the rating to be 
allowed each test. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 73 

Method of Treating the Scores. 

Averages were made for each pupil in each series 
from the rating given to each test as described above. 

Ratings of Tests 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 12 were re- 
duced to the percentage basis by multiplying each 
rating by the fraction in each test of each series re- 
quired to make the highest rating 100 per cent, for that 
test in that particular series. 

On the basis of the data acquired by both methods, 
tables have been made to compare the practised and the 
unpractised pupils of each class in two respects in 
regard to (1) their ability in the biological tests and 
(2) their ability in the non-biological tests. 

In case of the occasional absence of a pupil, the 
figures for that test had to be omitted from similar 
tests in each of the three series, in other words, the 
series were made homogeneous. 

Therefore, another table was made, consisting only 
of pupils who had been present at all the tests of two 
or more series, while still another table was compiled 
of the data of those pupils who had been present at 
all three series of tests. 

Tables showing the basis of the division for the prac- 
tice groups are presented. 

The class ratings in biology of the test pupils for the 
year during which the tests were performed, are recorded 
together with their ratings in the state examination. 

From all of these various tables, comparisons and 
conclusions are made, and finally the results of the 
present investigation are compared with those of other 
workers in the pedagogical field. 



74 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES. 
Class I, Series I. 



Boys 12 3 

Garratt 14 23 20 

Hart 12 11 18 

Hugger 18 19 16 

Jaegers 8 15 6 

Johnston.. . .16 27 6 

Lefkowitz... 5 14 17 

Rhodius 22 41 22 

Riconda 10 23 17 

Waller 29 23 32 

Walsh 17 19 16 

Weber 14 23 15 

Wetjen 9 16 

Wild 22 18 18 

Girls 

Clute 26 30 23 

Cohen 

Conradi 21 21 20 

Engels 35 30 26 

Geffert 22 34 16 

Haag 17 20 15 

Hamilton. ..21 37 28 

Howard 33 30 19 

Ilch 36 47 33 

Kolsch 27 29 16 

Kelly 25 32 30 

Kelly, K....24 34 20 

Krumholz...25 39 23 

Manwaring..29 39 21 

McGreevy...28 39 32 

Millang 17 27 20 

Murtagh. . . . 16 24 21 

Perry 26 17 10 

Savage 28 24 19 

Schmidt 31 40 26 



Tests 
7 8 



10 12 Total Aver. Age 



69 


21 


10 


71 


60 


22 


18 


7 


335 


30.45 


70 


18 


6 


28 


59 


12 


13 


2 


249 


22.63 


68 


8 


10 


70 


79 


18 


14 


10 


330 


30 


80 


14 


6 


80 


70 


8 


10 


8 


305 


27.72 


80 


7 


3 


57 


37 


7 


17 




257 


25.7 


47 


13 


8 


43 


40 


19 


15 


5 


226 


20.54 


49 


21 


6 


50 


60 


27 


11 


2 


311 


28.27 


49 


8 


5 


49 




12 


11 


8 


192 


19.2 


78 


23 


8 


69 


70 


16 


14 


6 


368 


33.45 


60 


11 


4 


37 


50 


15 


13 


2 


244 


22.18 


70 


14 


8 


50 


58 


14 


11 


5 


282 


25.63 


50 


7 


8 


70 


67 


8 


1 


4 


240 


24 


40 


13 


6 


42 


67 


11 


4 


9 


250 


22.72 


40 


14 


9 


60 


73 






4 


279 


31 


80 


19 


4 


75 


83 


26 


20 


2 


309 


38.62 


48 


15 


3 


60 


29 


13 


22 


1 


253 


23 


69 


25 


6 


60 


50 


24 


19 


9 


353 


32.09 


100 


11 


5 


80 


70 


19 


23 


9 


389 


35.36 


70 


15 


4 


48 


50 


10 


16 


5 


270 


24.54 


49 


29 


7 


79 


50 


24 


24 


3 


351 


31.9 


68 


27 


4 


38 


38 


17 


21 


1 


296 


26.9 


80 


37 


6 


40 


39 


25 


24 


7 


374 


34 


50 


29 


1 


36 


80 


17 


22 


3 


310 


28.18 




25 


3 


60 




21 


21 


5 


222 


24.66 


70 


20 


8 


40 


69 


16 


18 


7 


326 


29.63 


90 


23 


6 


50 


74 


28 


18 


7 


383 


34.81 


60 


17 


4 


70 


50 


10 


17 


3 


320 


29.09 


70 


31 


8 


70 


60 


26 


30 


4 


398 


36.18 


50 


22 


9 


70 


50 






7 


272 


30.22 


50 


11 


1 


50 


56 


13 


12 


4 


258 


23.45 


69 


13 


6 


60 


58 


14 


13 


3 


289 


26.27 


79 


18 


8 


60 


70 


11 


13 


6 


336 


30.54 


60 


33 


9 


60 


60 


23 


28 


8 


378 


34.36 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 75 



TABLE 1. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 

Class I, Series II. 

Tests 

Boys 123456 7 89 10 12 Total 

Garratt 36 24 24 90 22 10 80 80 22 24 8 420 

Hart 16 27 21 59 13 7 30 80 20 14 3 290 

Hugger 8 26 15 70 8 10 70 100 12 13 10 342 

Jaegers 20 13 19 79 18 10 66 77 17 19 4 342 

Johnston 22 19 10 70 13 8 90 50 15 10 8 315 

Lefkowitz 26 27 20 40 36 10 60 30 20 23 7 299 

Rhodius 41 44 24 60 22 9 80 40 22 22 5 369 

Riconda 11 18 18 60 12 7 80 80 13 16 9 324 

Waller 19 13 18 60 15 10 79 92 14 11 7 338 

Walsh 12 35 13 70 12 6 70 50 16 9 1 294 

Weber 16 28 18 79 14 9 90 80 15 13 7 369 

Wetjen 22 9 9 77 15 10 70 53 10 10 5 290 

Wild 24 18 10 57 9 5 49 49 14 9 8 252 

Girls 

Clute 30 28 22 60 26 10 80 89 20 19 2 386 

Cohen 27 32 14 40 26 9 60 71 23 23 3 328 

Conradi 25 24 16 50 25 9 47 58 15 18 7 294 

Engels 35 30 28 38 40 8 60 36 24 31 7 337 

Geffert 28 22 18 100 27 9 100 100 26 20 7 457 

Haag 36 32 23 59 19 7 70 54 21 19 3 343 

Hamilton 37 35 33 50 35 8 70 25 29 3 325 

Howard 34 40 23 89 31 2 50 26 22 19 3 339 

Ilch 31 39 27 60 22 7 90 74 23 22 6 401 

Kolsch 37 27 19 76 31 5 47 57 19 22 340 

Kelly 38 27 26 50 29 5 80 42 19 21 337 

Kelly, K 26 37 16 70 18 9 90 74 16 16 6 378 

Krumholz 29 24 19 60 25 8 80 68 22 17 3 355 

Manwaring 25 29 22 60 20 7 90 80 24 19 4 380 

Millang 33 22 24 80 29 10 50 77 19 18 2 364 

Perry 34 14 15 30 13 8 78 80 14 12 1 299 

Savage 25 20 20 90 21 7 70 70 17 16 5 361 

Schmidt 42 35 30 58 39 8 60 48 22 31 9 382 



76 



THE DOCTRINE OF FOEMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE 1. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
Class I, Series III. 











Tests 














Boys 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


12 


Total 


Garratt 


20 


36 


27 


70 


25 


10 


60 


60 


14 


5 


327 


Hugger 


28 


19 


13 


60 


6 


10 


80 


58 


13 


7 


294 


Johnston.. . . 


29 


37 


12 


80 


18 


10 


50 


70 


13 


9 


328 


Lefkowitz. . . 


25 


27 


27 


40 


27 


10 


50 


50 


15 


8 


279 


Rhodiua 


21 


39 


20 


70 


24 


10 


60 


69 


20 


7 


340 


Waller 


22 


33 


20 


90 


22 


10 


70 


70 


13 


4 


354 


Walsh 


24 


26 


13 


68 


15 


10 


56 


59 


6 


2 


279 


'Wetjen 


25 


20 


10 


48 


15 


10 


59 


46 


22 


3 


258 


WUd 


23 


23 


19 


80 


11 


10 


58 


49 


17 


5 


295 


Girls 
























Engels 


34 


29 


24 


38 


28 


9 


70 


69 


24 


2 


327 


Geffert 


23 


37 


22 


80 


24 


10 


52 


72 


14 


5 


339 


Hamilton . . . 


26 


32 


31 


50 


24 


8 


50 


46 


23 


10 


300 


Howard 


, 22 


44 


29 


60 


30 


6 


60 


50 


18 


5 


324 


Ilch 


, 34 


44 


28 


69 


26 


10 


67 


54 


28 


10 


370 


Kolsch 


, 32 


38 


19 


40 


27 


9 


20 


53 


13 


2 


253 


Kelly, K... 


. 17 


36 


20 


80 


24 


9 


50 


57 


22 


10 


325 


Krumholz. . 


. 27 


34 


20 


80 


29 


9 


80 


63 


17 


10 


369 


Manwaring. 


. 33 


38 


21 


60 


26 


10 


59 


60 


27 


5 


339 


Millang 


. 25 


21 


18 


50 


31 


10 


39 


79 


21 


8 


302 


Murtagh 


. 25 


29 


23 


79 


22 


9 


55 


60 


13 


3 


318 


Perry 


. 18 


32 


23 


40 


14 


8 


50 


60 


20 


3 


268 


Savage , 


, 30 


26 


24 


60 


23 


10 


60 


70 


17 


2 


322 


Schmidt 


, 29 


39 


27 


50 


29 


10 


79 


20 


31 


10 


324 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



77 



TABLE 1. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
Class II, Series I. 



Boys 



3 



Tests 
5 6 



7 8 9 10 12 Total Aver. Age 



Andrews 23 46 28 

Bernhardt... 25 30 29 

Demarest. . .23 29 27 

Dinneen 24 27 25 

Franklin.... 35 28 24 

Friedland. ..28 32 22 

Kartell 15 25 19 

MuUady.. ..24 14 18 

Schuler 20 32 20 

Smyth 26 11 22 

Vandevel....20 30 20 

Girls 

Blanc 35 34 22 

Bliimen 17 33 17 

Brady 22 16 13 

Dale8san....20 30 17 

Dehn 14 26 9 

Gannon 

Geissen 12 35 25 

Grodzic 14 30 18 

Hynes 30 29 34 

Inglis 23 34 24 

Keane 19 11 18 

Luft 23 25 30 

Lutz 48 34 

Meyer 16 18 17 

Rehm 34 29 16 

Rudolf 25 33 24 

Schnering. . . 19 21 15 

Schreiner....l9 22 20 

Wunder 19 42 36 



50 


27 


2 


40 


60 


19 


20 


5 


320 


29.09 


14 


65 


20 


4 


50 


50 


14 


24 


3 


314 


28.54 


14 


69 


29 


9 


80 


68 


24 


19 


7 


384 


34.905 


I 14 


67 


19 


5 


69 


67 


18 


18 


4 


343 


31.18 


15 


59 


28 


5 


90 


55 


22 


22 


5 


373 


33.9 


12 


60 


17 


3 


50 


39 


24 


24 





299 


27.18 


13 


80 


19 


5 


50 




18 


14 


3 


248 


24.8 


15 


77 


17 


6 


50 




24 


16 


3 


249 


24.9 


14 


90 


22 


3 


50 


69 


22 


18 


10 


356 


32.36 


13 


70 


15 


9 


50 


67 


13 


14 


6 


303 


27.54 


14 


60 


29 


6 


70 


55 


14 


17 


7 


328 


29.81 


17 


100 


20 


9 


70 


66 


28 


20 


8 


412 


37.45 


14 


50 


13 


6 


80 


50 


8 


18 


4 


296 


26.9 


14 


70 


18 


7 


50 


59 


17 


14 


9 


295 


26.81 


15 


80 


19 


4 


60 


80 


21 


19 


7 


357 


32.45 


14 


70 


9 


5 


70 


67 


10 


13 


5 


298 


27.09 


15 


69 


26 


7 


59 


66 


15 


21 


9 


272 


34 


14 


77 


16 


9 


70 


90 


13 


13 


8 


368 


33.45 


14 


90 


16 


10 


80 


60 


15 


17 


5 


355 


32.27 


14 


58 


20 


6 


59 


30 


16 


24 




306 


30.6 


15 


90 


18 


7 


60 


80 


16 


21 


6 


379 


34.45 


13 


79 


9 


5 


50 


29 


9 


15 


2 


246 


22.36 


15 


90 


18 


5 


68 


58 


22 


21 


5 


365 


33.18 


14 


57 


26 






39 


21 


26 


2 


253 


31.62 


14 


90 


23 


6 


40 


79 


18 


15 


4 


326 


29.63 


13 


70 


20 


5 


60 


84 


20 


19 




357 


35.7 


13 


60 


22 


4 


69 


49 


19 


24 


6 


335 


30.45 


13 


80 


16 


4 


46 


70 


13 


15 


10 


309 


28.09 


15 


30 


17 


2 


90 


27 


20 


25 


3 


275 


25 


13 


57 


29 


3 


79 


44 


31 


34 


7 


381 


34.63 


12 



78 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
Class II, Series II. 



Boys 



Tests 
5 6 7 



10 12 Total 



Andrews 32 43 

Bernhardt 34 22 

Demarest 42 27 

Dinneen 25 24 

FranJdin 34 41 

Friedland 40 35 

HarteU 24 16 

MuUady 21 22 

Schuler 23 25 

Smyth 31 18 

Vandevel 29 27 

Girls 

Blanc 37 35 

Blumen 24 25 

Brady 22 20 

Dalessan 25 33 

Dehn 21 

Gannon 29 30 

Geissen 29 24 

Grodzic 29 26 

Hynes 34 28 

IngUs 35 39 

Keane 19 22 

Luft 29 23 

Lutz 46 37 

Meyer 20 25 

Rehm 29 27 

Rudolf 30 34 

Schnering 18 24 

Schreiner 25 33 

Wunder 35 38 



28 


39 


19 


9 


60 


59 


20 


22 


6 


337 


24 


70 


22 


9 


79 


90 


17 


25 


5 


397 


28 


69 


36 


7 


70 


70 


20 


26 


6 


401 


18 


48 


15 


6 


87 


69 


10 


11 


4 


317 


30 


90 


16 


10 


100 


64 


19 


25 


6 


435 


32 


60 


34 


9 


50 


56 


29 


25 


4 


374 


17 


80 


19 


7 


70 


50 


21 


15 


3 


322 


14 


60 


30 


8 


54 


57 


25 


20 


2 


313 


25 




30 


6 


75 


77 


23 


21 


6 


311 


26 


60 


29 


10 


60 


78 


20 


21 


7 


360 


27 


70 


28 


6 


60 


67 


19 


19 


6 


358 


25 


100 


27 


9 


100 


67 


24 


27 


8 


459 


16 


69 


21 


10 


100 


59 


19 


17 


5 


365 


16 


50 


22 


7 


80 


80 


17 


18 


9 


341 


17 


100 


13 


8 


80 


60 


14 


23 


3 


376 




60 


10 


9 




89 


18 


13 


2 


222 


17 


62 


22 


7 


79 


70 


17 


21 


3 


357 


24 


70 


22 


10 


100 


80 


17 


18 


7 


401 


22 


100 


20 


10 


98 


68 


11 


16 


4 


404 


24 


50 


18 


9 


53 


44 


19 


24 


3 


306 


22 


90 


30 


10 


90 


80 


20 


25 


5 


446 


12 


48 


12 


7 


76 


40 


11 


8 


3 


258 


28 


57 


30 


8 


69 


71 


25 


21 


7 


368 


33 


50 


33 


5 


64 


58 


27 


33 


2 


388 


15 


70 


22 


8 


70 


87 


19 


11 


6 


353 


22 


69 


16 


5 


79 


70 


26 


13 


9 


365 


25 


58 


20 


10 


90 


43 


29 


19 


7 


365 


17 


80 


20 


9 


80 


69 


19 


16 


3 


355 


34 


70 


24 


9 


69 


50 


19 


16 


6 


355 


20 


59 


33 


9 


90 


49 


22 


22 


6 


383 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



79 



TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
Class II, Series III. 











Tests 














Boys 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


12 


Total 


Andrews. . 


. 17 


34 


20 


49 


32 


10 


50 


38 


24 


5 


279 


Bernhardt. 


. 29 


33 


25 


68 


23 


10 


50 


60 


13 


5 


316 


Friedland . 


. 20 


36 


28 


38 


23 


7 


49 


80 


18 


5 


304 


Kartell.... 


. 28 


15 


16 


80 


17 


9 


60 


56 


18 


2 


301 


Mullady. . 


. 30 


27 


13 


60 


22 


8 


43 


69 


19 


3 


294 


Schuler. . . 




37 


23 


59 


25 


7 


60 


36 


23 


3 


273 


Girls 
























Blanc 


. 40 


33 


28 


90 


24 


10 


67 


70 


26 


5 


393 


Blum en. . . 


. 31 


44 


17 


78 


18 


7 


90 


53 


19 


5 


362 


Brady. . . . 


. 22 


25 


14 


40 


16 


10 


80 


60 


23 


5 


295 


Dalessan. . 


. 25 


36 


19 


64 


16 


10 


50 


80 


14 


6 


320 


Gannon . . . 


.. 27 


33 


14 


80 


21 


7 


64 


68 


13 


2 


329 


Geissen. . . 


. 29 


38 


19 


70 


19 


10 


90 


70 


21 


10 


376 


Grodzic. . . 


. 16 


36 


21 


59 


14 


10 


90 


50 


17 


4 


317 


Inglis .... 


. 32 


41 


30 


70 


27 


10 


80 


80 


27 


5 


402 


Keane. . . . 


. 10 


17 


10 


47 


12 


10 


49 


38 


7 


3 


203 


Luft 


. 22 


32 


23 


68 


25 


10 


70 


56 


18 


4 


328 


Lutz 


. 37 


45 


28 


60 


33 


9 


80 


80 


29 


5 


406 


Meyer. . . . 


. 30 


32 


16 


40 


21 


10 


58 


59 


19 


2 


287 


Rehm 


. 23 


31 


18 


59 


24 


10 


69 


38 


13 


5 


290 


Rudolf.... 


. 30 


32 


26 


80 


22 


10 


90 


50 


22 


6 


368 


Schreiner. . 


.. 25 


33 


23 


70 


24 


8 


80 


59 


17 


4 


343 


Wunder. . . 


. 37 


35 


27 


62 


36 


6 


48 


30 


24 


6 


311 



80 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 

Class III, Series I. 

Tests 

Boys 123456789 10 12 Total Aver. Age 

Alliano 15 27 13 78 14 7 70 67 12 14 3 320 29.09 15 

Archimal....26 33 24 39 24 8 80 74 25 21 3 357 32.45 12 

Baldelli 27 21 15 59 21 7 90 69 15 21 3 348 31.63 14 

Bonomo 22 33 25 60 30 10 90 70 25 23 4 392 35.63 14 

Cohen 25 32 23 49 18 6 70 59 16 8 5 311 28.27 14 

Cullum 20 24 26 40 21 2 80 60 22 21 7 323 29.36 15 

Diiff 28 39 16 80 27 5 90 70 22 30 6 413 37.54 14 

Friedman. .. 17 22 26 66 13 8 70 60 20 16 8 326 29.63 15 

Miethke....27 31 13 36 18 4 60 30 17 19 7 262 23.81 14 

Ruppell 29 37 18 80 24 9 100 86 20 26 7 436 39.63 13 

Steiner 13 24 13 56 18 40 56 9 11 6 246 22.36 12 

Timmann...20 28 22 30 31 3 60 70 16 19 7 306 27.81 14 

Girls 

Brown 27 31 26 90 17 3 48 70 16 14 3 345 31.36 15 

Busby 20 32 26 68 19 3 77 70 18 20 6 359 32.63 13 

Duffy 28 27 26 90 5 48 27 15 266 33.25 14 

Dure 17 26 19 80 16 7 60 70 16 23 4 338 30.72 14 

GaUo 16 33 24 79 12 4 48 79 18 24 3 340 30.9 15 

George 18 35 19 80 15 6 50 48 16 20 307 27.9 15 

Hacker 24 25 25 50 25 80 23 22 8 282 31.33 15 

Hill 19 27 14 90 15 100 23 19 3 310 34.44 14 

Johnson 22 22 17 90 20 3 58 70 16 16 4 338 30.72 14 

Morton 15 18 20 90 22 6 89 20 17 8 305 30.5 14 

Netz 14 33 19 50 20 5 60 76 17 24 4 322 29.27 14 

Sbarra 16 20 14 90 19 7 68 80 11 23 2 350 31.81 14 

Schulz 19 23 6 50 18 4 79 90 11 17 2 319 29 14 

Weed 23 21 19 50 14 2 59 50 19 13 2 272 24.72 16 

Woodbury... 27 29 29 60 32 5 90 68 19 16 5 380 34.54 13 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS 



81 



TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
Class III, Series II. 



Boys 



Tests 
5 6 



10 12 Total 



Alliano 25 13 60 11 10 

Archimal 26 26 50 31 8 

Baldelli 18 22 70 20 6 

Bonomo 23 70 35 10 

Cohen 30 24 50 30 6 

Cullum 24 23 60 24 5 

Duff 35 34 70 31 5 

Friedman 32 24 70 23 8 

Miethke 25 20 80 32 9 

Ruppel 33 21 80 24 8 

Steiner 23 21 69 27 9 

Timmann 42 27 59 35 

Girls 

Brown 38 29 58 31 5 

Busby 31 26 80 23 6 

Duffy 32 34 49 15 5 

Duro 36 24 37 26 6 

GaUo 36 18 69 19 4 

George 80 13 

Hacker 33 21 60 24 9 

HiU 30 9 78 19 10 

Johnson 30 18 90 21 4 

Morton 27 20 78 13 6 

Netz 39 16 68 23 9 

Sbarra 17 IS 68 24 9 

Schulz 27 8 50 24 6 

Weed 24 25 70 18 6 

Woodbury 31 18 64 29 9 



80 


41 


8 




3 


251 


90 


50 


28 


37 


8 


354 


80 


73 


21 


20 


7 


337 


100 


100 


28 


36 


7 


409 


40 


69 


22 


19 


4 


294 


70 


79 


22 


21 


6 


334 


70 


70 


30 


34 


4 


383 


90 


40 


21 


22 


3 


333 


100 


68 


22 


22 


3 


381 


80 


100 


29 


27 


2 


404 


80 


39 


15 


21 


4 


308 


70 


69 


26 


26 


2 


356 


58 


38 


27 


24 


4 


312 


80 


58 


18 


18 


6 


346 


37 


68 


19 


21 


8 


288 


70 


70 


20 


25 


4 


318 


90 


80 


24 


22 


3 


365 


70 


69 


15 


17 


2 


266 


90 


100 


18 


27 


8 


390 


100 


90 


18 


14 


8 


376 


86 


90 


16 


16 


5 


376 


90 


60 


22 


9 


5 


330 


70 


60 


21 


18 


3 


327 


90 


90 


18 


25 


3 


359 


80 


80 


16 


20 


4 


315 


80 


100 


13 


13 


4 


353 


85 


39 


20 


16 


4 


315 



82 



THE DOCTEINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
Class III, Series III. 













Tests 














Boys 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


12 


Total 


Archimal — 


. 35 


45 


24 


60 


29 


10 


84 


75 


24 


5 


391 


Baldelli.... 


. 24 


30 


16 


70 


13 


10 


79 


58 


27 


5 


332 


Bonomo... . 


. 26 


38 


27 


46 


36 


7 


80 


78 


29 


2 


369 


Cohen 


. 39 


34 


23 


30 


33 


10 


76 


38 


29 


2 


314 


Cullum .... 


. 25 


40 


29 


50 


21 


8 


40 


82 


27 


3 


325 


Duff 


. 34 


45 


27 


69 


36 


10 


70 


60 


24 


4 


379 


Friedman. . 


. 17 


36 


22 


39 


24 


10 


50 


70 


27 


6 


301 


Miethke. . . 


. 27 


31 


13 


60 


23 


10 


60 


59 


27 


8 


318 


RuppeL . . . 


. 27 


38 


25 


70 


27 


10 


90 


37 


25 


3 


352 


Steiner 


. 28 


33 


21 


50 


22 


8 


40 


70 


17 


2 


291 


Girls 
























Busby 


. 30 


38 


28 


100 


23 


10 


80 


78 


28 


5 


420 


Duffy 


. 29 


39 


27 


56 


22 


3 


50 


66 


28 


5 


325 


Duro 


. 24 


30 


15 


50 


19 


10 


59 


66 


24 


2 


299 


Gallo 


. 33 


37 


22 


68 


20 


9 


68 


40 


21 


3 


321 


Hacker . . . 


. 26 


39 


31 


50 


39 


10 


70 


50 


26 


5 


346 


Hill 


. 30 


27 


21 




32 


10 


90 


70 


14 


3 


297 


Johnson 


. 22 


33 


16 


39 


19 


10 


70 


80 


24 


3 


316 


Morton 


. 24 


33 


19 


70 


13 


9 


80 


80 


22 


8 


358 


Netz 


. 13 


38 


17 


46 


16 


7 


67 


69 


21 


6 


300 


Sbarra 


. 23 


22 


14 


80 


16 


10 


58 


70 


16 


2 


311 


Weed 


. 25 


32 


22 


49 


16 


9 


50 


50 


13 


5 


271 


Woodbury.. 


. 28 


31 


28 


48 


21 


10 


88 


58 


29 


4 


345 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 83 

Explanation of Table 1 

The original ratings and totals of each pupil in 
Series I, II, and III, together with the average of each 
pupil in Series I and the age at the time of the tests of 
Series I, are presented in Table I. 

Blanks indicate that pupils were absent from the 
tests. 

As absences were so frequent, it seemed advisable 
during the tests of Series II and III, in order to have 
sufficient data to secure results, to require the pupils to 
perform the tests either before or after school as soon 
as possible after their return. No deviation from the 
method of procedure occurred. A careful record was 
kept of those who did not perform the tests with the 
class. As far as could be discovered, there seemed to 
be no great difference between the ratings secured when 
the test was performed independently and the average 
ratings of that pupil when the tests were performed with 
the class. Of course, it is impossible to state whether 
the pupil's rating in a particular test would have been 
higher or lower if performed with the class. Some- 
times a pupil did better and sometimes worse. 

Comparison of Practised and Unpractised Groups. 

Table 2 is based upon the scores of the practised 
and unpractised pupils in all three series, reduced to 
percentages as explained above under method of treat- 
ing the scores. 

In computing it we disregarded absences and also 
the omission of Test 1 in Series II by Class III and 
Test 10 from Series III. As the absences are about 
equally divided among the practised and unpractised, 
no very great discrepancy is made with such large 
totals. 



84 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

From the summary, that Table 2 provides, it will 
be noticed that in Series 1, in each of the three classes, 
the unpractised boys and unpractised girls have higher 
totals than the practised. This, of course, is due to 
the intentional division for the practice groups to 
favor the unpractised. 

In spite of the omission of Test 1 from Series 2 by 
Class 3, it is interesting to note that there is an im- 
provement in Series 2 over Series 1 by the practised 
boys of Class 3 and by both the practised and unprac- 
tised girls. 

With two exceptions, the unpractised boys of Class 
3 and the unpractised girls of Class 1, there is an im- 
provement in Series 2 over Series 1. These two excep- 
tions are undoubtedly due to the omission of Test 1 
by Class 3 from Series II and in the case of the girls 
of Class 1, by the omission of the whole eleven tests 
of Series II by one girl of the unpracticed half. 

The increase of Series II over Series I of the seven- 
teen practised boys, even with the omission of Test 1 
of Series II by Class 3, is 1342.80. Disregarding ab- 
sences, these seventeen boys performed 187 tests in 
Series II, thus making an increase of 7.18 for each 
individual test. Whereas the increase of Series II 
over Series I of the 17 unpractised boys with the omis- 
sion of Test 1 of Series II by Class 3 is only 399.88, 
thus making an increase of only 2.13 for each of the 
187 tests in Series II. 

The twenty-five girls of the practised half of Series 
II, even with the omission of Test I by Class 3, show 
an increase over the twenty-six girls of Series I of 
1436.98. Disregarding absences, these twenty-five 
girls performed 275 tests in Series II, thus there is an 
increase of 5.22 for each test. Whereas the twenty- 



ORIGINAL IX^'ESTIGATION 



85 



TABLE 2. 

C0iIPARI30N OP PlUCTISED AN'D UXPRACTISED GbOXJPS IK AlL TeSTS. 



Practised 



Unpractised 



i 

a 


X 

>> 


T. 





r. 


z. 


? — 
















o 


- 


X 


"^ 


gQ 


" 


SQ 


I 


12' 3143.04 


12 


3963.28 


8 


2532.78 


II 


10, 3121.47 


10 


3538.55 


6 


1816.04J 


III 


12; 3879.82 


12 


*3985. 30101 3499.54'] 


Total 


34 


10144.33 


34 


11487.13 


24 


7848.36" 



3344.63 3627.60] 2362.35 

3300.551 3534.46; 1781.72 

4048.53 *393 1.53, 3432.99 

10693. 71-11093. 59' 7577.06 



Increase in Series 11 1342. 80 



399.88 




I 

II 

III 

To:; 



87'^ 



18 6630.22 121 4124.03 6429.35 
•' :- 0118' 6651.89112; 4104.17 5848.47 
411^.51 14*4207. 2(^ 8; 2735.44' 422* (j9 



16052.39:50,17489.37 



5941.74 

6200.93 

*4449.69 



4011.01 
4144.15 
2606.43 



3210963.6; :rr ; 1 1 : ^'>2. 3610761. 59 



Increase in Series 11 1436. 98 



* Test I omitted, 
t Test 10 omitted. 

five girls of the unpractised half, show an increase of 
S6.45 in Series II over the twenty-six girls of Series I. 
Thus for the 275 tests, there is an LQcrease of only ,31 
for each test. 

With regard to Series III, with the exception of 
the girls of the unpractised half of Class 2, the totals 
of the practiced half are higher than those of the cor- 
responding unpractised half lq each class for both boys 
and girls. 



86 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

It is self-evident that these figures are necessarily 
inexact, but even with this crude comparison, the 
general trend of the results of the experiment can be 
foreseen. 

Comparison of Practised and Unpractised Halves 

in Regard to Ability in Biological and 

Non-Biological Tests. 

Table 3 shows the comparative results of the prac- 
tised and unpractised halves in the Biological tests 
and in the Non-Biological tests. 

In this computation, if a pupil was absent from a test 
in Series I or Series II, the corresponding test for this 
pupil was omitted from Series II or Series I, thus 
making the two series homogeneous. 

In Class (1), one girl in the practised half and one in 
the unpractised half were absent from most of the 
tests of Series II, therefore their tests in Series I had 
to be omitted, although, of course, these latter had 
helped to form the basis of division for the Practice 
Series. The ratings of the unpractised one were much 
superior to those of the practised one in Series I. 

In Class 1, there is an extra boy on the practised 
side; in Class 2, an extra boy on the unpractised side; 
and in Class 3, an extra girl on the unpractised side. 
Their percentages were not added in the totals of 
Series I and II, but in Series III of Class 2, the ratings 
of the extra unpractised boy were included in place 
of one who had left school. 

In Series II, Test 1 was omitted by Class III and, 
therefore, had to be omitted in Series I for that class. 

Test 10, in Series III was omitted by all three classes. 



TABLE 3. 
Comparison of Biological and Non-Biological Tests in Series I and II. 



Practised 


Unpractised 




Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


Class 


B 


I 


II 


I 


II 


B 


I 


II 


I 


II 


I 

II 

III 


6 

5 
6 


1345.24 
1586.83 
1355.96 


1614.64 

1555.62 
1803.54 


1797.80 
1534.64 
2135.24 


2268.64 
1932.93 
2181.76 


6 

5 
6 


1193.43 
1474.27 
1333.33 


1064.62 
1697.33 
1496. 78 


2155.20 
1725.32 
2216.20 


2439.24 
1771.13 
2434.75 


Totals 


17 


4288.03 


4973.80 


5467.68 


6383.33 


17 


4001.03 


4258.73 


6096.72 


6645.12 








4288.03 




5467.68 






4001.03 




6096. 72 




685.77 


915.65 


257.70 


548.40 


Class 


G 










G 










I 

II 

III 


9 
9 

7 


2555.00 
2560.21 
1434.81 


2979. 25 
2772.88 
1600.23 


3150.12 
3122.80 
2147.64 


3329. 20 
3575.01 
2447.03 


9 
9 

7 


2641.27 
2429.39 
1542.05 


2523.60 
2410.76 
1523.14 


2964. 28 
3269.68 
2291.28 


3245.75 
3579. 16 
2541.05 


Totals 


25 


6550.02 


7352.36 


8420.56 


9351.24 


25 


6612.71 


6457.50 


8525.24 


9365.96 








6550.02 




8420.56 




6457.50 






8525.24 




802.34 


930.68 


♦155.21 


840.72 



Decrease. B = Boys; G = Girls. 

TABLE 3 (Continued). 
Gains or Losses in Series II over Series I. 



Practised 


Unpractised 




Class 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 




Gains 


Losses 


Gains 


Losses 


Gains 


Losses 


Gains 


Losses 




I 

II 

III 


269.40 

447.58 


31.21 


470.84 

398.29 

46.52 




223.06 
163.45 


128.81 


284.04 

45.81 

218.55 


.^ 




Totals 


716.98 


31.21 


915.65 




386.51 


128.81 


548.40 




3 




I 

II 

III 


424.25 
212.67 
165.42 




179.08 
452.21 
299.39 






117.67 
18.63 
18.91 


281.47 
309.48 
249.77 






Totals 


802.34 




930.68 






155.21 


840.72 





88 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE 3 (Continued). 
Numbers of the Tests Omitted to Secure Better Comparison.* 







Biological 


Non-Biological 




Class 


Practised 


Unpractised 


Practised 


Unpractised 


o 

m 


I 

II 

III 




1 
10 


12 
8 
6 


8 

4,8 

2 




Totals 




2 


3 


4 


3 


I 

II 

III 


9, 10, 9, 10 

1 
3 


1,3 
3, 1,3 

5 


7,4,8 

12, 6, 7 

6,7,2 


2 
12, 2, 7, 2 
6, 7, 8, 12 




Totals 


6 


6 


9 


9 



* Tests omitted from Series 1 if absent from Series 2 or vice versa, 
in order to make the comparison of practised and unpractised of Series 
1 and 2 homogeneous. The entire set of tests of Murtagh of the 
practiced half and McGreevy of the unpracticed of Class 1 were omitted 
because of protracted absence. 

TABLE 3 (Continued). 

Comparison of Biological and Non-Biological Tests in Series 

III 





Practised 


Unpractised 


Class 


Boys 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


Boys 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


I 

II 

III 


4 
3 

5 


916.62 

747.34 
1519.88 


1616.16 
1068.70 
1979.66 


4 
3 

5 


793.45 

701.38 

1421.05 


1568.90 
1080.34 
2031.94 


Totals 


12 


3183.84 


4664. 52 


12 


2915.88 


4681.18 


Class 


Girls 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


Girls 


Biol. 


Non-Biol. 


I 

II 

III 


6 
6 

4 


1753.43 
1578.87 
1114.86 


2370.36 
2525.30 
1620.58 


6 
6 

4 


1571.81 
1593.97 
1083.27 


2439.20 
2550. 18 
1507.74 


Totals 


16 


4447.16 


6516.24 


16 


4249.05 


6497.12 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 89 

In Series III, a corresponding number of pupils on 
the practised and unpractised side were used for the 
comparison of totals. The integrity of the practised 
and unpractised sides was preserved as far as was pos- 
sible, considering the withdrawal of some of the pupils. 

From this summary provided by Table 3 it will 
be seen that there is a decrease in the totals of the Bio- 
logical tests of Series II for the unpractised boys of 
Class 1 and the unpractised girls of Classes 1, 2, and 
3, while the practised boys alone of Class 2 show a 
slight decrease. 

Both practised and unpractised groups of all classes, 
both boys and girls, show an increase in Series II in the 
Non-Biological tests; but the greater increase in the 
case of both boys and girls is on the side of the prac- 
tised group. 

The division for the practice group was based on the 
average of the original ratings of the eleven tests of 
each pupil in Series I, regardless of the distinction be- 
tween Biological and Non-Biological material, but this 
summary shows that in each case except the girls of 
Class I, the unpractised side had higher totals in the 
Non-Biological tests of Series I than the practised half, 
and in every case, they had higher totals in the Non- 
Biological tests of Series II, except the boys of Class 2 
and the girls of Class 1, but, as has been said, the 
greater improvement was in the practised group. It 
would seem that the superior pupils in the Non-Bio- 
logical tests were in the unpractised groups, but that 
something had caused an improvement in the prac- 
tised groups, although they could not attain to the 
superior position of their rivals. 

The seventeen boys in the practised group in the 
Non-Biological tests gained in Series II 915.65; thus 



90 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

in each of the 102 tests there was an average improve- 
ment of 8.97, while the corresponding unpractised 
half gained only 548.40 — an average increase for each 
of the 102 tests of 5.37. 

The twenty-five girls of the practised half in the 
Non-Biological tests made a gain in Series II of 930.68, 
or an average of 6.2 for each of the 150 tests, whereas 
the unpractised half gained 840.72, an average of 5.6 
for each of the 150 tests. Could it be that the increase 
of the practised group was due to a transfer from the 
practice series? Or, is it possible that the unpractised 
group may have been nearer their physiological limit 
and therefore could not increase in proportion to the 
practised? 

Turning to the Biological tests, as has been noted, 
only one of the practised divisions, that of the boys of 
Class 2, lost slightly, while four of the unpractised 
lost. It is difficult to explain this loss. If the Biologi- 
cal material of Series II was more difficult, then it 
would be hard to explain the great gain of both boys 
and girls in the practised group. 

When the fu'st series of tests was performed, most 
of the biological material was comparatively new to the 
subjects; that is, they did not know any of the technical 
or scientific terms used in describing stems, flowers, 
leaves, buds, etc. In the course of their school work 
between the tests of Series I and II, the pupils learned 
many technical terms. I felt that this would lower their 
ratings in the second series, because they might be 
able to use a single word which would express about 
the same meaning as a sentence had been required for 
in the first series. To my surprise, I found that 
this was not always the case. May it not be possible 
that the unpractised did exactly this very thing, while 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 91 

the practised, having had ten extra biological speci- 
mens to describe, had acquired some skill in enumer- 
ating more at length the characteristics necessary to 
distinguish one from another? 

It happened that when the Biological were separated 
from the Non-Biological tests of Series I, the advantage 
in the Biological tests in each class of boys and in 
Class 2 of the girls was with the practised group. In 
only one class, the boys of Class 2, did the unpractised 
reach a higher total in Series II than the practised 
group. Therefore, we cannot assume that the physio- 
logical limit had anything to do with these tests, as 
far as the boys were concerned, since those that were 
better made more improvement, while with the Non- 
Biological tests, the reverse was true. With the girls, 
while the advantage was slightly in favor of the un- 
practised group in Series I, the totals of Series II 
showed a decrease, while the practised side showed con- 
siderable increase. 

In the Biological tests the seventeen boys in Series II 
made an improvement over Series I of 685.77; thus 
for the 85 tests, there was an increase of 8.06 per test; 
whereas the unpractised boys made an increase of 
257.70, or for the 85 tests, of 3.03 per test. The 
twenty-five girls of the practised division, in Series II 
made a gain of 802.34 over Series I, or for the 125 
tests, of 6.41 per test, while the unpractised side lost 
155.21, or for the 125 tests, 1.24 per test. Clearly in 
Series II, the advantage seems to be with the practised 
side. 

In computing the average gain or loss per test, no 
allowance was made for the omission of Test 1 from 
Series II by Class 3 nor for absences from the tests, 
therefore the average per test would be slightly greater, 



92 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

but since practically the same number of tests was 
omitted by both sides, as can be seen from the table 
of "Tests Omitted," no material difference would be 
made in the relationship of the practised and unprac- 
tised sides. 

The summary of Series III shows the comparison 
of the totals of twelve boys and sixteen girls in the 
practised and unpractised groups in both the Biological 
and Non-Biological tests. 

Here there is seen in general the same relationship 
as was shown in the comparison of Series I and II. 

In Series III, the twelve boys of the practised half 
have a higher rating than the unpractised in the Bio- 
logical tests, as they did in both Series I and II; while 
in the Non-Biological tests, the advantage is with the 
unpractised as it was in both Series I and II. 

The sixteen girls show an advantage in the practised 
side in both Biological and Non-Biological tests, which 
was just the opposite in Series I, while in Series II, 
the Biological ratings of the practiced were much 
higher and the Non-Biological were slightly lower. 
More accurate comparison will be made later, but all 
these data seem to show a general advantage in favor 
of the practised side. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



93 



TABLE 4. 

Comparison of Series I and IL 

Net Gains and Losses When Made Homogenous for Corresponding 

Pairs of Pupils. 





Practised 


Unpractised 


Class 


Boys 


Gains 


Losses 


Gains 


Losses 


I 

II 

III 


12 
10 
12 


372 
171 
201 




149 
156 
219 




Total 


34 


744 




524 




Class 


Girls 










I 

II 

III 


18 
18 
14 


387 
350 
160 




56 

212 

28 




Total 


50 


897 




296 





TABLE 4 (Continued). 
Comparison op Pupils in Series I and II and III. 
Net Gains and Losses Made Homogeneous for Corresponding Pupils in 
All 3 Series. 





Practised 


Unpractised 


Class 


Boys 


I and II 


I and III 


I and II 


I and III 






Gain 


Loss 


Gain 


Loss 


Gain 


Loss 


Gain 


Loss 


I 

II 

III 


8 

6 

10 


250 

112 

37 




159 
19 

53 




2 
124 
246 




21 

4 

36 




Totals 


24 


399 




231 




372 




61 




Class 


Girls 


134 
191 
122 




14 
30 
62 




52 

158 

57 




56 




I 

II 

III 


10 

12 
8 


28 
53 


Totals 


30 


447 




106 




267 




56 


81 



TABLE 4 (Continued). 
Summary op Pupils Present at All Tests. 

Net Scores. 









Practised 








Unpractised 




♦Class 


B 


I 


II 


I 


II 


III 


I 


II 


I 


II 


III 


I 

II 

III 


8 
8 
8 


1121 
1335 
1213 


1378 
1463 
1318 


828 
1148 


1019 

1222 


946 
1167 


1230 
1329 
1266 


1301 
1516 
1456 


916 
1179 


899 
1366 


943 
1224 


Totals 


24 


3669 


4159 


1976 


2241 


2113 


3825 


4273 


2095 


2265 


2167 




G 


1710 
1703 
1527 


3669 




1976 


1976 




3825 




2095 


2095 


Class 


490 
Gain 

1899 
1914 
1644 


1353 

1321 

853 


265 
Gain 

1455 

1479 

961 


137 
Gain 

1329 

1342 

911 


1708 
1728 
1635 


448 
Gain 

1794 

1878 
1742 


1346 

1318 

937 


170 

Gain 

1424 
1445 
1002 


72 
Gain 


I 
II 

III 


10 
10 
10 


1386 

1369 

899 


Totals 


30 


4940 


5457 


3527 


3895 


3582 


5071 


5414 


3601 


3871 


3654 








4940 




3527 


3527 




5071 




3601 


3601 




517 
Gain 




368 
Gain 


55 
Gain 




343 
Gain 




270 
Gain 


53 
Gain 



* Series III. 14 boys, 22 girls. 

TABLE 4 (Continued). 

Comparison of All Pupils Who Were Present at All Tests op 

Series i and II. 

Net Gains and Losses. 





Practised 


Unpractised 


Class 


Boys 


Gains 


Losses 


Gains 


Losses 


I 

II 

III 


8 
8 
8 


257 
128 
105 




71 
187 
190 




Totals 


24 


490 




448 




I 

II 

III 


10 
10 
10 


189 
211 
117 




86 
150 
107 




Totals 


30 


517 




343 





OKIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



95 



TABLE 4 (Continued). 
Comparison op Pupils Who Were Present at All Tests op Series 

I, II AND III. 

Net Gains and Losses. 





Practised 


Unpractised 






I and II 


I and III 


I and II 


I and III 


Class 


Boys 


Gain 


Loss 


Gain 


Loss 


Gain 


Loss 


Gain 


Loss 


I 

II 

III 


6 


8 


191 
74 




118 
19 




187 


17 


27 
45 




Totals 


14 


265 




137 




187 


17 


72 




Class 


Girls 


102 
158 
108 




21 

58 


24 


78 

127 

65 




40 
51 




I 

II 

III 


8 
8 
6 


38 


Totals 


22 


368 




79 


24 


270 




91 


38 



In Table IV, a comparison is made of the original 
ratings based on Table I of the practised and unprac- 
tised groups. 

Test 1 of Series II was omitted by Class 3, and Test 
10 of Series III was omitted by all three classes. If a 
pupil was absent from a test, that test was omitted 
from his ratings in each of the other series, and also 
from the ratings of all of the series of his partner. Thus 
pairs of pupils, chosen when division for the practice 
groups was made, are compared in exactly the same 
tests in each of the three series. 

The Table giving the comparison of Series I and II 
shows more improvement of the practised group in 



96 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

every class except the boys of Class 3. In Series I, 
in every case, the unpractised group had higher ratings 
than the corresponding practised group. In Series 
II, this is true only in the case of the unpractised boys 
and girls of Class 3. But the total improvement is 
greater for the practised group. The seventeen boys 
of the practised group made a gain of 744 in Series II 
over Series I. With fourteen of the 187 tests omitted, 
the practised boys made an average gain of 4.3 per 
test in their ratings while the corresponding unprac- 
tised boys gained 524 in Series II with an average 
gain per test of 3.02. 

The twenty-five girls of the practised group made 
a gain of 897 in Series II. Omitting 34 of the 275 
tests, the practised girls made an average gain of 3.72 
per test, while the unpractised girls gained 296 in 
Series II, an average of 1.22 per test. 

A comparison of the 24 boys and 30 girls in Series I, 
II and III, shows the greater improvement to be in 
the practised group. This is true for both Series II 
and Series III. The only loss is in Series III by the 
unpractised groups of girls in Classes 1 and 3. 

A summary of the 24 boys and 30 girls present in all 
the tests, again shows the advantage to rest with the 
practised group. Twelve boys performing eleven tests 
each, with a total of 132 tests, gained 490 or 3.71 per 
test, while fifteen girls performing a total of 165 tests, 
gained 517 or 3.13 per test. The twelve boys of the 
unpractised group gained 448, with an average of 
3.39 per test while the fifteen girls gained 343, average 
2.08 per test. The seven boys of the practised group 
in Series III compared with Series I showed greater 
improvement than the unpractised, and the eleven 
girls showed a very little more improvement than their 
corresponding group. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



97 



A comparison of pupils who were present at all tests 
of Series I, II and III, again shows for the fourteen 
boys and twenty-two girls, the former to manifest great- 
er improvement for the practised group in both series, 
while the girls show a greater improvement in Series 
II but very little difference in Series III. 



TABLE 5. 
Class I, Series 1. 
Division op Classes for Practice Groups. 







No. of 






No. of 




Average 


Missing 




Average 


Missing 


Boys 




Tests 


Boys 




Tests 


Garratt 


30.45 




Waller 


33.45 




Rhodius 


28.27 




Hugger 


30.00 




Johnston 


25.70 


1 


Weber 


27.70 




Hart 


22.63 




Wild 


22.72 




Walsh 


22.70 




Wet j en 


24.00 


1 


Lefkowitz 


18.60 




Riconda 
Total 


19.20 


1 


Total 


148.35 


157.07 




Jaeger 


27.72 










Girls 






Girls 






*Engels 


32.09 




Kolsch 


28.18 




Geflfert 


35.36 




McGreevy 


36.18 




Schmidt 


34.36 




Krumholz 


34.81 




Hamilton 


31.90 




Ilch 


34.00 




Millang 


30.22 


2 


Savage 


34.66 




Man waring 


29.09 




KeUy, K. 


29.63 




Haag 


24.54 




Howard 


26.90 




Murtagh 


23.45 




Perry 


24.18 




*KeUy 


24.66 


2 


Conradi 


19.44 




Clute 


33.30 


t 


Cohen 
Total 


43.83 


t 


Total 


298.97 


311.81 





* Indicates names should have been transferred, because of higher 
averages. 

t Six experiments alike. 







TABLE 5 I 


(Continued). 






» 




Class II 


, Series I. 








Division 


OF Classes 


FOR Practice Group. 








No. of 






No. of 




Average 


Missing 




Average 


Missing 


Boys 




Tests 


Boys 




Tests 


Andrews 


29.09 




Vandevel 


29.81 




Friedland 


27.18 




Smyth 


27.54 




Kartell 


24.80 


1 


MuUady 


24.90 


1 


Franklin 


33.90 




Demarest 


34.90 




Dinneen 


31.18 




Schuler 
Total 


32.36 




Total 


146.15 


149.51 










Bernhardt 


28.54 




Girls 






Girls 






Rehm 


35.70 


1 


Blanc 


40.4 




Inglis 


34.45 




Wunder 


34.63 




Luft 


33.18 




Geissen 


33.45 




Grodzic 


32.27 




Dalessan 


32.45 




*Rudolf 


32.90 




Hynes 


30.60 




Schnering 


28.09 




Meyer 


29.63 




Brady 


26.81 




Blumen 


26.90 




Schreiner 


25.00 




Dehn 


27.09 




Lutz 


28.50 


t 


Gannon 
Total 


34.33 




Total 


276.90 


289.48 










Keane 


22.36 





t Six experiments alike. 



TABLE 5 (Continued). 

Class III, Series I. 

Division op Classes for Practice Groups. 







No. of 






No. of 




Average 


Missing 




Average 


Missing 


Boys 




Tests 


Boys 




Tests 


Duff 


37.54 




Ruppel 


39.63 




Archimal 


32.45 




Bonomo 


35.63 




Timman 


27.81 




Alhano 


29.09 




Friedman 


29.63 




BaldelU 


31.63 




Cohen 


28.27 




CuUum 


29.36 




Steiner 


22.36 




Miethke 


23.81 




Total 


178.06 


189.15 




Girls 






Girls 






Hacker 


31.33 




Hill 


34.44 


2 


Busby 


32.63 




Woodbury 


34.54 




Brown 


31.36 




Sharra 


31.81 




Duro 


30.72 




Johnson 


30.72 




Weed 


24.72 




Gallo 


30.90 




Schulze 


29.00 




Netz 


29.27 




George 


30.50 




Duffy 
Total 


33.25 




Total 


210.26 


224.93 




Morton 


30.50 


1 









ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 99 





TABLE 5 


(Continued). 






Summary of Practice Groups. 








Practised 


Unpractised 


Class 


Boys 


Total Average 


Total Average 


I 


12 


148.35 


157.07 


II 


10 


146.15 


149.51 


III 


12 
34 


178.06 


189.15 


Total 


472.56 


495.73 








472.56 




23.17 


Class 


Girls 






I 


20 


298.97 


311.81 


II 


18 


276.90 


289.48 


III 


14 
52 


210.26 


224.93 


Total 


786.13 


826.22 








786.13 



40.09 

From the results of the tests ot Series I, the three 
classes were divided into two groups, one for the extra 
practice and the other for comparison. In each class, 
boys and girls considered separately, the two pupils 
having their averages from the original ratings of 
Series I, Table I, nearest alike, were chosen for com- 
parison and the one with the higher rating was placed 
in the unpractised group. In case of absence from 
one or more tests, the same test was omitted from the 
nearest pupil's average. In three cases, through 
faulty manipulation or computation, pupils having 
higher ratings were placed with the practised group. 
It is possible now, to see a few changes that might 
have made an improvement. But in every case, in 
every class, the higher total for both boys and girls 
was in the unpractised group. 

The summary shows that in Series I, the unprac- 
tised group of boys was ahead in their averages by 
23.17 while the unpractised girls outran the practised 
by 40.09. 



100 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE 6. 

Class Marks in Botany, February to June, 1912; Zoology, Sep- 
tember TO February, 1913. 



Boys 

Garratt 

Rhodius 

Johnston 

Hart 

Walsh 

Lefkowitz 

Total 

Jaegers 



Practised 



Class I. 



1 2 



February to June, 1912. 
3 4 Total Boys 



83 70 80 80 313 WaUer 

70 80 80 80 310 Hugger 

60 55 50 65 230 Weber 

50 45 55 40 190 Wild 

62 55 70 65 252 Wet j en 

55 60 62 65 242 Riconda 

380 365 397 395 1537 Total 

70 75 75 75 295 





Unpractised 




1 


2 


3 


4 '■ 


Total 


55 


55 


40 


60 


210 


60 


80 


70 


75 


285 


63 


60 


70 


73 


266 


60 


57 


50 


60 


227 


60 


50 


65 


67 


242 


65 


50 


50 


40 


205 



363 352 345 375 1435 



Girls 












Girls 












Engles 


75 


80 


82 


83 


320 


Kolsch 


80 


83 


80 


85 


328 


Geffert 


70 


75 


77 


75 


297 


McGreevy 


75 


60 


65 


60 


260 


Schmidt 


80 


82 


85 


85 


332 


Krumholz 


78 


80 


85 


85 


328 


Hamilton 


55 


60 


65 


65 


245 


Ilch 


72 


70 


70 


73 


285 


Millang 


77 


82 


85 


85 


329 


Savage 


70 


55 


60 


60 


245 


Man waring 


78 


75 


75 


80 


308 


Kelly, K. 


74 


72 


70 


72 


288 


Haag 


70 


60 


65 


70 


265 


Howard 


75 


80 


75 


80 


310 


Mm-tagh 


70 


68 


60 


65 


263 


Perry 


73 


50 


60 


65 


248 


Kelly 


55 


55 


60 


47 


217 


Conradi 


60 


50 


60 


60 


230 


Clute 


60 


55 


60 


62 


237 


Cohen 


70 


60 


50 


45 


225 


Total 


690 692 714 717 2813 


Total 


727 660 675 685 2747 


1 — March. 






















2— April 30. 






















3— May 31. 






















4r— June 28. 























OEIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



101 



TABLE 6 (Continued). 

Class II. 
Practised 

February to June, 1912, 
Boys 12 3 4 Total Boys 

Andrews 55 60 70 65 250 Vandevel 
Friedland 62 65 60 65 252 Smyth 
HarteU 70 65 62 65 262 MuUady 

Franklin 78 85 87 87 337 Demarest 
Dinneen 70 60 60 63 253 Schuler 



Unpractised 

12 3 4 Total 

60 78 80 75 293 

70 72 60 65 267 

65 60 70 68 263 

78 75 70 75 298 

55 78 75 75 283 



Total 



Girls 
Rehm 
Inglis 
Luft 
Grodzic 
Rudolf 
Schnering 
Brady 
Schreiner 
Lutz 



335 335 339 345 1354 Total 



328 363 355 358 1404 













Bernhardt 


72 


60 


60 


65 


257 












Girls 












73 


75 


70 


80 


298 


Blanc 


75 


90 


90 


87 


342 


82 


88 


90 


87 


347 


Wunder 


84 


92 


93 


90 


359 


74 


92 


88 


87 


341 


Geissen 


72 


72 


80 


80 


304 


73 


80 


80 


82 


315 


Dalessan 


70 


60 


50 


60 


240 


79 


82 


83 


82 


326 


Hynes 


72 


55 


50 


50 


227 


80 


80 


82 


83 


325 


Meyer 


70 


65 


60 


65 


260 


70 


60 


65 


65 


260 


Blumen 


70 


80 


80 


80 


310 


72 


76 


75 


75 


298 


Dehn 


65 


50 


45 


40 


200 


78 


85 


85 


83 


331 


Gannon 


70 


55 


50 


60 


235 


681 


718 718 724 2841 


Total 


648 


619 


598 


612 


2477 












Keane 


70 


55 


50 


45 


220 






TABLE 6 (Continued). 




















Class III. 














Practised 








Unpractised 








February to June, 1912. 












1 


2 


3 


4 ' 


Total 


Boys 


1 


2 


3 


4 '■ 


Total 


75 


80 


70 


80 


305 


Ruppel 


63 


72 


83 


80 


298 


80 


92 


85 


86 


343 


Bonomo 


70 


80 


83 


80 


313 


65 


70 


55 


60 


250 


AUiano 


50 


70 


50 


60 


230 


65 


64 


50 


60 


239 


BaldelU 


75 


80 


80 


80 


315 


70 


80 


70 


70 


290 


Cullum 


60 


80 


75 


75 


290 


68 


50 


65 


65 


248 


Miethke 


80 


70 


65 


70 


285 


423 


436 395 


421 


1675 


Total 


398 452 


436 445 


1731 












Girls 












72 


78 


79 


75 


304 


Hill 


63 


60 


65 


60 


248 


80 


92 


85 


88 


345 


Woodbury 


80 


75 


85 


85 


325 


70 


80 


75 


70 


295 


Sbarra 


78 


60 


70 


73 


281 


80 


70 


73 


75 


298 


Johnson 


75 


85 


86 


85 


331 


76 


70 


73 


75 


294 


Gallo 


70 


74 


78 


75 


297 


75 


55 


50 


45 


225 


Netz 


79 


85 


87 


85 


336 


55 


50 


55 


40 


200 


Duffy 


80 


82 


70 


80 


312 


508 


495 


490 


468 


1961 


Total 


525 


521 


541 


543 


2130 


60 


60 


60 


60 


240 















102 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE 6 (Continued). 



Class I. 



Practised 



Unpractised 



Septeviber to February, 1913. 



State 

Boys 12 3 Total Exam. Boys 

Garratt 75 70 70 215 70 WaUer 

Rhodius 70 70 87 227 87 Hugger 

♦Johnston 65 70 71 206 *71 Weber 

Hart Wild 

Walsh 65 60 60 185 Wetjen 

Lefkowitz 70 61 62 193 62 Riconda 



Total 



280 261 279 820 219 Total 



Girls 
Engles 
*Geffert 
Schmidt 
Hamilton 
Millang 



80 75 80 235 79 

70 60 73 203 73 

83 75 70 228 63 

70 50 62 182 

85 83 81 249 81 

Manwaring 80 75 75 230 

Haag 

Murtagh 65 65 73 203 73 

Kelly 

Clute 



State 
12 3 Total Exam. 

50 56 70 176 70 
75 63 80 218 80 

60 55 62 177 62 
70 63 70 203 



255 237 282 774 212 



80 65 73 218 73 



Girls 

Kolsch 

McGreevy 

Krumholz 80 82 90 252 90 

70 50 65 185 65 

68 45 50 163 

75 70 68 213 68 

70 65 74 209 74 

65 45 50 160 



Ilch 

Savage 

Kelly, K. 

*Howard 

Perry 

Conradi 

Cohen 



Total 



463 423 441 1327 369 Total 



438 357 396 1191 370 



Omit. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



103 



TABLE 6 (Continued). 













Clabs II. 


















Practised 








Unpractised 










September to February, 1913. 




















State 












State 


Boys 


1 


2 


S '. 


Total Exam. 


Boys 


1 


2 


3 '. 


Total Exam. 


Andrews 


70 


55 


55 


180 


55 


Vandevel 












Friedland 


70 


53 


63 


186 


63 


Smyth 












Kartell 


65 


66 


68 


199 


68 


MuUady 


70 


70 


60 


200 


60 


Franklin 












Demarest 












Dinneen 












Schuler 


75 


62 


75 


212 


75 














Bernhardt 


70 


65 


65 


200 


65 


Total 


205 


174 


186 


565 


186 


Total 


215 


197 200 


612 200 


Girls 












Girls 












Rehm 


83 


85 


87 


255 


87 


Blanc 


82 


85 


90 


257 


90 


Inglis 


85 


85 


80 


250 


78 


Wunder 


90 


85 


97 


272 


97 


Luft 


80 


77 


82 


239 


82 


Geissen 


70 


80 


82 


232 


82 


Grodzic 


80 


75 


75 


230 


*75 


Dalessan 


70 


50 


65 


185 




*Rudolf 


83 


80 


75 


238 


*66 


Hynes 












Schnering 












*Meyer 


60 


50 


60 


170 




Brady 


70 


70 


70 


210 


90 


Blumen 


73 


68 


88 


229 


88 


*Sclireiner 


80 


80 


75 


235 


*72 


Dehn 












Lutz 


80 


65 


83 


228 


*83 


Gannon 


65 


50 


40 


155 





Total 478 457 477 1412 337 Total 

TABLE 6 (Continued). 



450 418 462 1330 357 













Class III. 














i 


Practised 








Unpractised 








September to February, 1913. 


















State 










State 


Boys 


1 


2 


S 


Total Exam. 


Boys 


1 


2 


3 


Total Exam. 


Duff 


75 


75 


78 


228 


78 


Ruppel 


80 


83 


80 


243 78 


Archimal 


85 


90 


95 


270 


95 


Bonomo 


75 


80 


75 


230 70 


Timman 












AUiano 










Friedman 


65 


80 


75 


220 


70 


BaldelU 


85 


90 


95 


270 95 


Cohen 


75 


80 


80 


235 


80 


Cullum 


75 


80 


79 


234 78 


Steiner 


72 


65 


62 


199 




Miethke 


75 


80 


81 


236 *81 


Total 


372 


390 


390 


1152 


323 


Total 


390 413 


410 


1213 321 


Girls 












Girls 










Hacker 


80 


75 


77 


232 


77 


Hill 


70 


65 


65 


200 


Busby 


82 


85 


80 


247 


77 


Woodbury 


90 


89 


96 


275 96 


Brown 












*Sbarra 


78 


50 


50 


178 


Duro 


80 


62 


65 


207 




Johnson 


85 


85 


96 


266 96 


Weed 


75 


75 


72 


222 


71 


Gallo 


70 


63 


68 


201 68 


Schulze 












*Netz 


82 


85 


78 


245 *73 


George 












*Duffy 


80 


63 


77 


220 *77 


Total 


317 


297 294 


908 225 


Total 


315 


302 


325 


942 260 


Morton 


65 


50 


50 


165 















104 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE 6 (Continued). 

SUMMAKY OF TeRM's RATINGS. NeT ScORES. 

February to June, 1912. 

Practised Unpractised 



Class 


Boys 






I 


6 


1537 


1435 


II 


5 


1354 


1404 


III 


6 


1675 


1731 


Total 


17 


4566 


4570 


Class 


Girls 






I 


10 


2813 


2747 


II 


9 


2841 


2477 


III 


7 


1961 


2130 



Total 



26 



7615 



7354 



September to February, 1913. 



Class 


Boys 






I 


4 


820 


774 


II 


3 


565 


612 


III 


5 


1152 


1213 


Total 


12 


2537 


2599 


Class 


Girls 






I 


6 


1327 


1191 


II 


6 


1412 


1330 


III 


4 


908 


942 


Total 


16 


3647 


3463 




State Examinations. 




Class 


Boys 






I 


3 


219 


212 


II 


3 


186 


200 


III 


4 


323 


321 


Total 


10 


728 


733 


Class 


Girls 






I 


5 


369 


370 


II 


4 


337 


357 


III 


3 


225 


260 



Total 



12 



931 



987 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 105 

Table VI records the class ratings in biology of the 
test pupils during the one year of the test. 

Too much reliabihty must not be placed upon regard- 
ing these marks as actually showing the degree of 
intelligence or ability of the pupil in general or in 
biology in particular. Various other factors besides 
general ability and intelligence are considered in giving 
the ratings, some of which are absence, attention, 
preparation of home-work, ability to recite the lesson, 
neatness, accuracy, preparation of a note-book, abil- 
ity to pass an examination, effort, etc. 

The March rating had been given before the begin- 
ning of the tests and the April rating was given during 
the tests. From the computation of the totals of the 
March ratings, it will be seen that upon the basis of 
school marks, the unpractised boys are slightly in- 
ferior to the practised, while the unpractised girls are 
superior to the practised girls. The April rating shows 
exactly the reverse to be true. The May mark shows a 
similar condition to that obtaining in April. In the 
June rating, the comparative positions are still un- 
changed, the unpractised boys lead and the practised 
girls. 

The summary of the totals of the term's ratings 
shows the unpractised boys to be superior by four 
credits while the practised girls are superior by 261 
credits. With seventeen boys, the advantage of the 
unpractised group is only .23 per pupil, while the 
twenty-six practised girls are superior to the un- 
practised to the extent of 10.03 per pupil. 

Thus, it might be said that the boys' practice groups 
were very evenly divided in ability when based on 
class ratings. 



106 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

Anti-disciplinarians might also claim that the super- 
iority of the girls of the practised group might have 
some influence on their greater improvement, which 
otherwise might be ascribed to the transfer of practice. 

The totals of the ratings of the second term's work 
show the same comparison. The unpractised boys 
excel their opponents by 62 credits, while the practised 
girls outrun the unpractised by 184 credits. If this 
means anything, it points to the better boys being in 
the unpractised group while the reverse is true with 
the girls. 

At the conclusion of the first term's work, one prac- 
tised and one unpractised boy, and three practised 
and three unpractised girls failed to be promoted as 
indicated by the percentages below 60 in the fourth 
rating. Thus, as regards deficient pupils according 
to school ratings, both practised and unpractised sides 
were equal. 

Of those who were promoted and remained in school 
during the second term, one practised boy, one prac- 
tised girl, and four unpractised girls failed to be pro- 
moted, thus indicating, on the basis of school ratings, 
that four of the poorest girls were on the unpractised 
side. 

At the close of the first term, 94.4% of the 36 boys- 
in the tests passed the work and were promoted while 
88.8% of the 54 girls also advanced a grade. 

At the close of the second term, 96% of the 25 boys 
studying biology and who had performed the three 
series of tests, successfully completed the work, and 
87.8% of the 41 girls studying biology and who had 
also been in all three series of tests, passed on to a 
higher grade. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 



107 



At the end of a year's work in biology, 24 boys of the 
original 36 who began the tests, were still in school and 
promoted to an advanced grade an average of 66.6%. 
Likewise, 36 girls of the original 54 were promoted, an 
average of 66.6%. , 

At the conclusion of the first year's work m biology, 
a state examination is given by the Regents' Depart-' 
ment of the University of the State of New York. 
Of the 52 of the test pupils of all series who took this 
examination, 98.07%, passed. 

From a consideration of these percentages and re- 
membering the statistical data in regard to the great 
mortality in the first year of the high school, it is 
evident that if these series of tests cannot be claimed 
to have profited these pupils it can at least be said 
that they were not detrimental. Personally, recalling 
the experiments of Dallenberg, I am inclined to be- 
lieve them in some degree accountable for the very 
satisfactory showing in the state examination. 

Comparing the state examination ratings of the 
10 pairs of boys and 12 pairs of girls, we find that the 
unpractised boys exceed the practised by an average 
of .5% per pupil while the unpractised girls exceed the 
practised by an average of 4.6% per pupil. _ Thus 
again, the unpractised boys show superior ability ac- 
cording to examination ratings; as do also the unprac- 
tised girls, contrary to former comparisons. As only 
the better pupils entered the state examination and 
only 44 of the original 86 test pupils are compared, 
it would be unwise to emphasize this comparison of the 
practised and unpractised groups. 



108 



THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



TABLE 7. 
Computed from Tables I and V. 



Number of tests 
improred in 



Number of tests 
decreased in 



Tests 
omitted 



Number 
of pupils 
in tests 









Biol. 


Non-Biol. 








Same 




Same 
















Ser. Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. 


Ser. Ser. 


II I & 


Ill 


I & 


II 


Ill 


II 


Ill 


II 


Ill 


II III 


II 




III 
















Practised 




















Boys' 
Class 




















1 49 3 


26 


3 


6 


7 


7 


4 


1 




6 4 


2 32 7 


13 


2 


9 


7 


6 


7 


1 


1 


5 2 


*3 43 5 


32 


4 


1 


2 


21 


12 


7 




7 6 


Totals 124 15 


171 


9 


16 


16 


34 


23 


9 


1 


18 12 


Girls' 




















1 57 9 


39 


5 


6 


8 


20 


17 


18 


1 


10 7 


2 55 11 


47 


5 


13 


9 


16 


15 


4 


4 


9 8 


t3 42 9 


29 


3 


7 


4 


8 


11 


11 


3 


7 5 


Totals 154 29 


115 


13 


26 


21 


44 


43 


33 


8 


26 20 


Unpractised 
Boys' 

Class 




















1 37 8 


17 


3 


12 


9 


7 


10 


2 


1 


6 4 


2 35 2 


10 


1 


4 


2 


12 


4 


2 


3 


5 2 


*3 39 8 


37 


6 


7 


5 


15 


12 


8 





7 6 


Totals 111 18 


64 


10 


23 


16 


34 


26 


12 


4 


18 12 


Girls' 




















1 50 6 


41 


4 


17 


10 


23 


15 


14 




10 7 


2 52 8 


42 


3 


15 


13 


18 


19 


6 


3 


9 8 


3 36 7 


24 


4 


10 


6 


12 


13 


12 


3 


7 5 


Totals 138 21 


107 


11 


42 


29 


53 


47 


32 


6 


26 20 



* Bernhardt and Jaegers counted with Class 3. 
t Morton counted in Ser. III. 



ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 109 

Table 7 was computed from Table 1, comparing the 
practised 18 boys and 26 girls with a similar number 
of unpractised in Series 1 and 11 and the practised 
12 boys and 20 girls with a similar number of unprac- 
tised in Series I and III. 

In every class for both boys and girls, the totals ot 
the number of tests which remained the same and in 
which improvement was made in Series 11 is greater 
for the practised pupils. In Series 111, the totals of 
the tests which remained the same as in Series I and in 
which an improvement was made is greater for the 
unpractised in two of the six cases, the boys of class 3 
and the girls of class 1. j • » 

In Series II, the unpractised boys decreased m 7 
more biological tests than the practised and in the 
same number of non-biological; whereas the unprac- 
tised girls decreased in 16 more biological and 9 more 
non-biological than the practised girls. 

In Series III, both practised and unpractised boys 
decreased in the same number of biological tests while 
the unpractised boys decreased in 3 more non-bio- 
logical tests. The unpractised girls decreased m 8 
more biological and 4 more non-biological than their 
practised opponents. 

Three more tests were omitted by the unpractised 
boys in both Series II and III, while the unpractised 
gu-ls omitted one less in the biological and 2 less m the 
non-biological than their corresponding practised neigh- 
bors. 

The conclusions to be drawn from this table are 
necessarily similar to those presented heretofore. 
Throughout the advantage is with the practised group. 



110 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 



SUMMARY OF ALL TABLES OF COMPARISON OF SERIES I AND II 



Practised 



Unpractised 



BOYS 



Table 


Ser. II 


Av. 


Biol. 


Av. 


Non B 


Av. 


Ser. 11 


Av. 


Biol. 


Av. 


NonB 


Av. 


II 


1342.80 


7.18 










399.88 


2.13 










III 






685.77 


8.06 


915.65 


8.97 






257.70 


3.03 


548.40 


5.37 


IV 


744 


4.3 










524 


3.02 










V 














Ser. I 
23.17 












VI 














4 


.23 










VII 


Increase 
124 




Deer. 
16 




Deer. 

34 




111 




Deer. 
23 




Deer. 

34 





GIRLS 



II 
III 


1436.98 


5.22 


802.34 


6.41 


930.68 


6.2 


86.45 


.31 


Deer. 
155.21 


Deer. 

1.24 


840.72 


IV 


897 


3.72 










296 


1.22 








V 
VI 


261 


10.03 










Ser. I 
40.09 










VII 


Increase 
154 




Deer. 

26 




Deer. 

44 




138 




Deer. 
42 




Deer. 

53 



5.6 



CONCLUSIONS. 

Combining the results and conclusions noted in the 
seven tables with their several sub-divisions, some con- 
clusion may be reached in regard to the object of our 
search — the transfer of special practice in biological 
material to non-biological. 

In the summary of all the tables, we see from Table 
2, that the average gain per test of the practised boy 
in the 11 tests is 7.18 while that of the unpractised boy 
is 2.13; the average gain per test of the practised girl is 
5.22, that of the unpractised girl only .31 per test. 

Table 3 shows that in the biological tests, the 
average gain of each practised boy was 8.06 per test 
for the 5 tests while the unpractised showed a gain of 
3.03. The practised girls averaged 6.41 gain per test, 
while the unpractised lost 1.24 per test. In the non- 
biological, the practised girls gained 6.2 per test for 
the 6 tests while the unpractised gained 5.6; the prac- 
tised boys gained 8.97 per test and the unpractised 
boys gained only 5.37 per test. 

In Table 4, based on the original ratings, the prac- 
tised boy gained 4.3 per test to the unpractised's gain 
of 3.02; while the practised girls exhibited a gain of 
3.72 to the unpractised girls' gain of 1.22. 

Table 5 shows that at the end of Series 1, when the 
class had been divided into practice groups, the group 
of unpractised boys had a total score 23.17 higher 
than the practised, while the unpractised girls had a 
total of 40.09 higher than their opponents. 

Table 6 gives the ratings of the pupils in their 
biological class-work and shows the unpractised boys 

111 



112 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

to excel the other group by an average of .23, while 
the practised girls surpass their fellow competitors by 
10.03 per pupil. 

Table 7 shows that the practised boys gained in 13 
more tests and the practised girls in 16 more tests 
than their opponents. The practice boys lost in 7 
fewer biological tests and the girls in 16 fewer biological 
tests than the unpractised side; while the practised 
and the unpractised boys lost in the same number of 
non-biological tests but the practised girls in 9 fewer 
than the opposite side. 

It is evident from these general summaries and com- 
parisons that the practised pupils have done better 
in the second and third series than the unpractised. 
The question difficult to solve is: ''What is the cause?" 
No doubt growth, familiarity with procedure, benefits 
of class-work and study, and desire to excel, have all 
contributed their share toward the gain, but these fac- 
tors may have aided both sides equally. We have no 
means of telling. Then why the difference? 

Judging from the division of the practice groups, the 
better pupils in these tests were on the unpractised 
side. While the class term marks showed the better 
boys to be on the unpractised side, the contrary was 
true as far as the girls were concerned. The March 
rating showed the reverse condition of affairs. Very 
little significance can be attached to class marks as 
denoting general intelligence or superiority, because 
so many extraneous factors enter in. 

Considering Table 3, we would naturally expect 
both practised boys and girls to earn in the second 
series a bigger gain than their opponents in the bio- 
logical tests; but how shall we explain their greater 
efficiency in the non-biological tests, other than to 
ascribe it to the effects of the practice series? 



CONCLUSIONS 113 

Feeling that the balance of arguments and scientific 
proofs were against formal discipline when this investi- 
gation was begun, I am forced by the results obtained 
to admit that in this experiment, the proof seems to be 
on the affirmative side. 

A valuable lesson, I think, can be drawn from one 
phase of this investigation. By consulting the tables 
and summaries, it will be seen that sometimes one 
division does not fall in line with the general trend, but 
that a larger number outweighs the negative and shows 
positive results. This would warn us against drawing 
conclusions from experimentation with too few sub- 
jects, as has been done in several of the investigations 
cited in the historical part. 

As can be seen by the averages per test of Tables 2 
and 4 the boys have done better than the girls, although 
the curves of the practice series seem to indicate that 
the girls are superior in that series. This may be 
ascribed to the boys' general lack of intensive applica- 
tion to uninteresting or monotonous work but it is likely 
that greater effort was put into the shorter tests of the 
three series. 

COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH THOSE 
OF PEDAGOGICAL EXPERIMENTS. 

Winch found that boys of the same age and standard 
were slightly superior to girls in immediate visual 
memory. As many of the tests of this experiment 
were of a similar type to those of Winch, it may be 
stated that this investigation supports Winch's con- 
clusion. 

Winch found in his experiments on memory that a 
steady improvement was shown in both the practised 



114 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

and unpractised groups but that the practised group 
was superior. This conforms exactly to my conclu- 
sions. 

In his experiments on the ''transfer of numerical 
accuracy" he found in some of the series that the lower 
practised side after practice reversed positions with 
the higher unpractised. This investigation gives the 
same results. 

Wallin in his spelling tests found that his "data 
furnished conclusive evidence in favor of transfer." 

Starch found from 20 to 40 per cent, more improve- 
ment in the practised observers in arithmetical opera- 
tions; and ascribes it to "identical elements"; as did 
Thorndike and Woodworth in their investigations. 
Ruediger found evidences of transfer in his tests on 
ideals and ascribed it to "identity of aims." 

In our own investigation there are certainly conclu- 
sive evidences of transfer. The improvement in the 
biological material can be ascribed to "identical ele- 
ments," but the "identity of aim" and "identity of 
procedure" and "identical elements" were common 
equally to both sides, except for the advantage for 
the practised in the biological tests. The greater in- 
crease of the practised must be ascribed to some in- 
tangible psychological effects of practice. 

Thus a few more data have been added to the big 
problem of the High School and along slightly different 
lines from those along which experimental tests have 
been attempted heretofore. 



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115 



116 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

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118 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

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GRADUATES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 




Class I — Boys 




Practised 




Unpractised 


Garratt 




Weber 


* Rhodius 


Class I — Girls 


Wetjen 
Riconda 


* Engels 






Manwaring 


Class II — Boys 


* ICrumholz 
Ilch 

* Howard 


Friedland 




* Schuler 


HarteU 






t Franklin 


Class II — Girls 




*Rehm 




* Blanc 


* Inglis 




* Wunder 


*Luft 




* Geissen 


Rudolf 




Blumen 


* Schreiner 






*Lutz 


Class III— Boys 




Archireal 




Ruppel 


* Cohen 


Class III — Girls 


* BaldelU 
Cullum 
Miethke 


* Hacker 




* Woodbury 


* Busby 




Duffy 



Duro 



* Graduated Jan., 1916. 
t Graduated June, 1915. 
Others graduated in June, 1916. 



119 



120 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 

Participants in Tests Graduates 

34 boys 15 boys 44% 

50 girls 20 girls 40% 

Practised Unpractised 

Boys graduated in Jan., 1916 2 2 

Boys graduated in June, 1916 4 6 

Boy graduated in June, 1915 1 

Totals 7 8 

Girls graduated in Jan., 1916 8 6 

Girls graduated in June, 1916 3 3 

Totals 11 9 

The commencement program furnished the Hst of 
January and June graduates. 

Of the original 84 pupils in the tests, 35 have gradu- 
ated; 40% of the girls and 44% of the boys. It is 
interesting to note that 18 were in the practised group 
and 17 in the unpractised, thus showing that on the 
basis of graduation, the groups were nearly evenly 
divided. 

Of the 7 graduates among the practised boys, 1 
graduated from the four-year general course in 33^ 
years, and of the 8 graduates among the unpractised, 
1 graduated from the three-year co-operative course in 
4 years; thus indicating a still more even division of 
the two groups. 

Of the 9 graduates among the unpractised girls 1 
graduated from the three-year household arts course 
in 4 four years. It would appear, that as far as gradu- 
ation is concerned, the better girls were in the prac- 
tised group. 

These general deductions fall in line with inferences 
made heretofore. It would be futile, however, in this 
connection to attempt to draw any conclusions in 
regard to the main object of this monograph. 



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